S_ 
,-   ^ 


GIFT   ©F 
W.   H.    Ivie 


EDUCATION  DEPT. 


(Si. 


/  • 


PATHFINDER    PHYSIOLOGY    No.     3 


HYGIENIC  PHYSIOLOGY 


WITH    SPECIAL    REFERENCE    TO    THE    USE    OF 


ALCOHOLIC  DRINKS  AND  NARCOTICS 


BEING    A    REVISED    EDITION    OF    THE 


FOURTEEN    WEEKS     IN    HUMAN    PHYSIOLOGY 


JOEL  DORIVIAN  STEELE, 
II 


ENLARGED   EDITION    WITH    SELECTED   READINGS 

Edited  for  the  use  of  Schools,  hi  accordance  loith  the  recent  Legislation  tipon 
Temperance  Instruction 


Copyright,  1872,  1884,  and  1888,  by 

A,     S.     BARNES     &    COMPANY 

NEW    YORK    AND    CHICAGO 


A   POPULAR   SERIES 


NATURAL    SCIENCE, 


J.     DORTvtAN     STEiKLE,     PlLD.,     F\G.S., 

A  uihor  of  the  Fourteen  Weeks  Series  in  Natural  Science,  etc.,  etc. 

New  Popular  Chemistry.  New  Descriptive  Astronomy. 

New  Popular  Physics.  New  Hygienic  Physiology, 

New  Popular  Zoology.  Popular  Geology. 

An   Introduction  "J,d_Botany. 


The  Publishers  can  supply  (ro  T£a?-hei3  only)  a-  Manual  containing  Answers 
to  the  Oiicstion.3  And  Problem-a-in  SteelVs  entire  Series. 


BAXNES'     HISTORICAL     SERIES, 

ON     THE     PLAN     OF 

STEELE'S    FOURTEEN-WEEKS     IN     THE     SCIENCES. 

A  Brief  History  of  the   United   States. 
A  Brief  History  of  France. 

A  Brief  History  of  Ancient   Peoples. 

A   Brief  History  of  Mediaeval   and   Modern   Peoples, 
A  Brief  General    History. 

A  Brief  History  of  Greece. 

A  Brief  History  of  Rome. 

A  Popular  History  of  the  United  States. 


'    /r  / 
f     L         ^ 

EDUCATION 


THE  term  Physiology,  or  the  science  of  the  functions  of  the 
body,  has  come  to  include  Anatomy,  or  the  science  of  its 
structure,  and  Hygiene,  or  the  laws  of  health  ;  the  one  being 
essential  to  the  proper  understanding  of  physiology,  and  the 
other  being  its  practical  application  to  life.  The  three  are 
intimately  blended,  and  in  treating  of  the  different  subjects 
the  autho'r  has  drawn  no  line  of  distinction  where  nature  has 
made  none.  This  work  is  not  prepared  for  the  use  of  medical 
students,  but  for  the  instruction  of  youth  in  the  principles 
which  underlie  the  preservation  of  health  and  the  formation 
of  correct  physical  habits.  All  else  is  made  subservient  to  this 
practical  knowledge.  A  simple  scientific  dress  is  used  which, 
while  conducing  to  clearness,  also  gratifies  that  general  desire 
of  children  to  know  something  of  the  nomenclature  of  any 
study  they  pursue. 

To  the  description  of  each  organ  is  appended  an  account  of 
its  most  common  diseases,  accidents,  etc.,  and,  f  when  prac- 
ticable, their  mode  of  treatment.  A  pupil  may  thus  learn,  for 
example,  the  cause  and  cure  of  "a  cold,"  the  management  of 
a  wound,  or  the  nature  of  an  inflammation. 

The  Practical  Questions,  which  have  been  a  prominent 
feature  in  other  books  of  the  series,  will  be  found,  it  is  hoped, 

M56007 


VI  PREFACE. 

equally  useful  in  this  work.  Directions  for  preparing  simple 
microscopic  objects,  and  illustrations  of  the  different  organs, 
are  given  under  each  subject. 

The  Readings,  which  represent  the  ideas  but  not  always 
the  exact  phraseology  of  the  author  quoted,  have,  in  general, 
been  selected  with  direct  reference  to  Practical  Hygiene,  a 
subject  which  now  largely  occupies  the  public  mind.  The 
dangers  that  lurk  in  foul  air  and  contaminated  water,  in  bad 
drainage,  leaky  gas-pipes,  and  defective  plumbing,  in  reckless 
appetites,  and  in  careless  dissemination  of  contagious  diseases, 
are  here  portrayed  in  such  a  manner  as,  it  is  trusted,  will 
assist  the  pupil  to  avoid  these  treacherous  quicksands,  and  to 
provide  for  himself  a~  solid  path  of  health. 

Under  the  heading  of  Health  and  Disease  will  be  found 
Hints  about  the  sick-room,  Directions  for  the  use  of  Disinfect- 
ants, Suggestions  as  to  what  to  do  "  Till  the  Doctor  comes," 
and  a  list  of  antidotes  for  Poisons.  Questions  for  Class  Use,  a 
full  Glossary,  and  an  ample  Index  complete  the  book. 

Believing  in  a  Divine  Architect  of  the  human  form,  the 
author  can  not  refrain  from  occasionally  pointing  out  His  in- 
imitable workmanship,  and  impressing  the  lesson  of  a  Great 
Final  Cause. 

The  author  has  gleaned  from  every  field,  at  home  and 
abroad,  to  secure  that  which  would  interest  and  profit  his 
pupils.  In  general,  Flint's  great  work  on  the  "  Physiology  of 
Man,"  an  undisputed  authority  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic, 
has  been  adopted  as  the  standard  in  digestion,  respiration,  cir- 
culation, and  the  nervous  system.  Leidy's  "Human  Anatomy," 
and  Sappey's  "Trait6  d'Anatomie "  have  been  followed  on  all 
anatomical  questions,  and  have  furnished  many  beautiful  draw- 
ings. Huxley's  "Physiology"  has  afforded  exceedingly  valuable 
aid.  Foster's  "Text-Book  of  Physiology,"  Hinton's  "Health 
and  its  Conditions,"  Black's  "Ten  Laws  of  Health,"  Williams' 


PREFACE.  Vll 

practical  essay  on  "Our  Eyes  and  How  to  Use  them,"  Le 
Pileur's  charming  treatise  on  "The  Wonders  of  the  Human 
Body,"  and  that  quaint  volume,  "  Odd  Hours  of  a  Physician," 
have  aided  the  author  with  facts  and  fancies.  The  writings  of 
Draper,  Dalton,  Carpenter,  Valentine,  Mapother,  Watson,  Lan- 
kester,  Letheby,  Hall,  Hamilton,  Bell,  Wilson,  Bower,  Cutter, 
Hutchison,  Wood,  Bigelow,  Stille,  Holmes,  Beigel,  and  others 
have  been  freely  consulted. 


PUBLISHERS'      NOTE. 

An  Abridged  Edition  of  this  work  is  published,  to  afford  a  cheaper 
manual  —  adapted  to  Junior  Classes  and  Common  Schools.  The  abridgment 
contains  the  essence  of  this  text,  nearly  all  its  illustrations,  and  the  whole 
of  the  Temperance  matter  as  here  presented. 

Order  "Hygienic  Physiology,  Abridged." 


READING 


FOSTER'S  "Text-Book  of  Physiology";  Leidy's  "Human  Anatomy"; 
Draper's  "  Human  Physiology " ;  Dalton's  "  Physiology  and  Hygiene  " ; 
Cutter's  "  Physiology " ;  Johnston  and  Church's  "  Chemistry  of  Common 
Life";  Letheby's  "Food";  Tyndall"On  Light,"  and  "On  Sound";  Flint's 
"  Physiology  of  Man  ";  Rosenthal's  "  Physiology  of  the  Muscles  and  Nerves  ": 
Bernstein's  "  Five  Senses  of  Man "  ;  Huxley  and  Youmans'  "  Physiology 
and  Hygiene";  Sappey's  "Traite  d'Anatomie";  Luys'  "Brain  and  its 
Functions " ;  Smith's  "  Foods "  ;  "Bain's  "  Mind  and  Body " ;  Pettigrew's 
"  Animal  Locomotion  " ;  Carpenter's  "  Human  Physiology,"  and  "  Mental 
Physiology";  "Wilder  and  Gage's  "Anatomy";  Jarvis'  "Physiology  and 
Laws  of  Health." 

Hargreaves'  "Alcohol  and  Science";  Richardson's  "Ten  Lectures  on 
Alcohol,"  and  "Diseases  of  Modern  Life";  Brown's  "Alcohol";  Davis' 
"Intemperance  and  Crime";  Pitman's  "Alcohol  and  the  State";  "Anti- 
Tobacco";  Howie's  "Stimulants  and  Narcotics";  Hunt's  "Alcohol  as  Food 
or  Medicine";  Schutzenberger's  "Fermentation";  Hubbard's  "Opium 
Habit  and  Alcoholism";  Trouessart's  "Microbes,  Ferments,  and  Molds." 


INTRODUCTION  ....        .   xiii 


I.— THE    SKELETON 
THE  HEAD     . 
THE  TRUNK 
THE  LIMBS 


1,  269 

.       9 

11 

15 


II.— THE    MUSCLES    .  .       .        .        .        .       25,275 


III.— THE    SKIN        .        .        . 

THE  HAIR  AND  THE  NAILS 
THE  TEETH 


IV.— RESPIRATION    AND    THE    VOICE 


.    47,  285 
52 

.     57 

71,  297 


V.— THE    CIRCULATION     .        .        .        .        .          101,314 

THE  BLOOD         .        . 105 

THE  HEART 110 

THE  ARTERIES .        .114 

THE  VEINS  116 


VI.— DIGESTION    AND    FOOD 


149,  317 


VII.— THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM    ....          189,  330 

THE  BRAIN 193 

THE  SPINAL  CORD  AND  THE  NERVES  .        .  197 

THE  SYMPATHETIC  SYSTEM       ....        .      201 


X  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

VIII.— THE    SPECIAL    SENSES       .        .        .        .          227,  345 
TOUCH,  .    ,-/.        .        .        .        .        .        .      229 

TASTE 230 

SMELL 232 

HEARING  .  234 

SIGHT 236 

IX.— HEALTH    AND    DISEASE.— DEATH    AND    DE- 
CAY        249 

1.  HINTS  ABOUT  THE  SICK-ROOM    .        .        .        .      255 

2.  DISINFECTANTS  .        .        .."      .  "  •    .        .        .        .  256 

3.  WHAT  TO  Do   "TILL  THE  DOCTOR  COMES"    .      257 

4.  ANTIDOTES  TO  POISONS  .        •  .,.-.••*        •  •  265 

X.— SELECTED    READINGS    .        .        .  .        .      267 

XL— APPENDIX        .        .        .        .  .                .        .        .355 

QUESTIONS  FOR  CLASS  USE  •.        .        .        .      357 

GLOSSARY        .        .        .        .  .               .        .        .  387 

INDEX  .  395 


SEEING  is  believing  —  more  than  that,  it  is  often  knowing 
and  remembering.  The  mere  reading  of  a  statement  is  of  little 
value  compared  with  the  observation  of  a  fact.  Every  oppor- 
tunity should  therefore  be  taken  of  exhibiting  to  the  pupil  the 
phenomena  described,  and  thus  making  them  real.  A  micro- 
scope is  so  essential  to  the  understanding  of  many  subjects,  that 
it  is  indispensable  to  the  proper  teaching  of  Physiology.  A 
suitable  instrument  and  carefully  prepared  specimens,  showing 
the  structure  of  the  bones,  the  skin,  and  the  blood  of  various 
animals,  the  pigment  cells  of  the  eye,  etc.,  may  be  obtained  at 
a  small  cost  from  the  Publishers  of  this  book. 

On  naming  the  subject  of  a  paragraph,  the  pupil  should  be 
prepared  to  tell  all  he  knows  about  it.  No  failure  should  dis- 
courage the  teacher  in  establishing  this  mode  of  study  and  reci- 
tation. A  little  practice  will  produce  the  most  satisfactory 
results.  The  unexpected  question  and  the  apt  reply  develop  a 
certain  sharpness  and  readiness  which  are  worthy  of  cultiva- 
tion. The  questions  for  review,  or  any  others  that  the  wit  of 
the  teacher  may  suggest,  can  be  effectively  used  to  break  the 
monotony  of  a  topical  recitation,  thereby  securing  the  benefits 
of  both  systems. 


Xll  SUGGESTIONS     TO     TEACHERS* 

The  pupil  should  expect  to  be  questioned  each  day  upon 
any  subject  passed  over  during  the  term,  and  thus  the  entire 
knowledge  gained  will  be  within  his  grasp  for  instant  use. 
While  some  are  reciting  to  the  teacher,  let  others  write  011 
slates  or  on  the  blackboard.  At  the  close  of  the  recitation,  let 
all  criticise  the  ideas,  the  spelling,  the  use  of  capitals,  the  pro- 
nunciation, the  grammar,  and  the  mode  of  expression.  Greater- 
accuracy  and  much  collateral  drill  may  thus  be  secured  at  little 
expense  of  valuable  school-time. 

The  Introduction  is  designed  merely  to  furnish  suggestive 
material  for  the  first  lesson,  preparatory  to  beginning  the 
study.  Other  subjects  for  consideration  may  be  found  in  the 
section  on  Health  and  Disease,  in  the  Selected  Readings,  and 
among  the  questions  given  in  the  Appendix.  Where  time  will 
allow,  the  Selected  Readings  may  profitably  be  used  in  connec- 
tion with  the  topics  to  which  they  relate.  Questions  upon 
them  are  so  incorporated  with  those  upon  the  text  proper  that 
they  may  be  employed  or  not,  according  to  the  judgment  of 
the  teacher. 


NOTE.  —  Interest  in  the  study  of  Physiology  will  be  much  increased  by 
the  use  of  the  microscope  and  prepared  slides.  "By  writing  to  the  pub- 
lishers of  this  book,  full  particulars  will  be  furnished. 


INTRODUCTION. 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  STUDY  in  youth  is  of  inestimable 
value.  Precious  lives  are  frequently  lost  through  igno- 
rance. Thousands  squander  in  early  years  the  strength  which 
should  have  been  kept  for  the  work  of  real  life.  Habits  are 
often  formed  in  youth  which  entail  weakness  and  poverty  upon 
manhood,  and  are  a  cause  of  life-long  regret.  The  use  of  a 
strained  limb  may  permanently  damage  it.  Some  silly  feat  of 
strength  may  produce  an  irreparable  injury.  A  thoughtless 
hour  of  reading  by  twilight  may  impair  the  sight  for  life.  A 
terrible  accident  may  happen,  and  a  dear  friend  perish  before 
our  eyes,  while  we  stand  by  powerless  to  render  the  assistance 
we  could  so  easily  give  did  we  "only  know  what  to  do."  The 
thousand  little  hints  which  may  save  or  lengthen  life,  may 
repel  or  abate  disease,  and  the  simple  laws  which  regulate  our 
bodily  vigor,  should  be  so  familiar  that  we  may  be  quick  to 
apply  them  in  an  emergency.  The  preservation  of  health  is 
easier  than  the  cure  of  disease.  Childhood  can  not  afford  to 
wait  for  the  lesson  of  experience  which  is  learned  only  when 
the  penalty  of  violated  law  has  been  already  incurred,  and 
health  irrevocably  lost. 

Nature's  Laws  Inviolable. — In  infancy,  we  learn  how 
terribly  Nature  punishes  a  violation  of  certain  laws,  and  how 
promptly  she  applies  the  penalty.  We  soon  find  out  the  peril 
of  fire,  falls,  edged  tools,  and  the  like.  We  fail,  however,  to 
notice  the  equally  sharp  and  certain  punishments  which  bad 
habits  entail.  We  are  quick  to  feel  the  need  of  food,  but  not 


XIV  INTRODUCTION. 

so  ready  to  perceive  the  danger  of  an  excess.  A  lack  of  air 
drives  us  at  once  to  secure  a  supply ;  foul  air  is  as  fatal,  but 
it  gives  us  no  warning. 

Nature  provides  a  little  training  for  us  at  the  outset  of  life, 
but  leaves  the  most  for  us  to  learn  by  bitter  experience.  So  in 
youth  we  throw  away  our  strength  as  if  it  were  a  burden  of 
which  we  desire  to  be  rid.  We  eat  any  thing,  and  at  any 
time  ;  do  any  thing  we  please,  and  sit  up  any  number  of  nights 
with  little  or  no  sleep.  Because  we  feel  only  a  momentary  dis- 
comfort from  these  physical  sins,  we  fondly  imagine  when  that 
is  gone  we  are  all  right  again.  Our  drafts  upon  our  constitu- 
tion are  promptly  paid,  and  we  expect  this  will  always  be  the 
case ;  but  some  day  they  will  come  back  to  us,  protested ; 
Nature  will  refuse  to  meet  our  demands,  and  we  shall  find 
ourselves  physical  bankrupts. 

We  are  furnished  in  the  beginning  with  a  certain  vital  force 
upon  which  we  may  draw.  We  can  be  spendthrifts  and  waste 
it  in  youth,  or  be  wise  and  so  husband  it  till  manhood.  Our 
shortcomings  are  all  charged  against  this  stock.  Nature's 
memory  never  fails  ;  she  keeps  her  account  with  perfect  exact- 
ness. Every  physical  sin  subtracts  from  the  sum  and  strength 
of  our  years.  We  may  cure  a  disease,  but  it  never  leaves  us 
as  it  found  us.  We  may  heal  a  wound,  but  the  scar  still  shows. 
We  reap  as  we  sow,  and  we  may  either  gather  in  the  thorns, 
one  by  one,  to  torment  and  destroy,  or  we  may  rejoice  in  the 
happy  harvest  of  a  hale  old  age. 


I. 

THE  SKELETON. 


"  NOT  in  the  World  of  Light  alone, 
Where  God  has  built  His  blazing  throne 
Nor  yet  alone  on  earth  below, 
With  belted  seas  that  come  and  go, 
And  endless  isles  of  sunlit  green 
Is  aU  thy  Maker's  glory  seen— 
Look  in  upon  thy  wondrous  frame, 
Eternal  wisdom  still  the  same ! " 

HOLMES. 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  SKELETON. 

NOTE.— The  following  Table  of  206  bones  is  exclusive  of  the  8  sesamoid 
bones  which  occur  in  pairs  at  the  roots  of  the  thumb  and  great  toe,  making 
214  as  given  by  Leidy  and  Draper.  Q-ray  omits  the  bones  of  the  ear,  and 
names  200  as  the  total  number. 


(  Frontal  Bone  (forehead). 

Two  Parietal  Bones. 

1.  CRANIUM  
(8  bones.) 

j  Two  Temporal  (temple)  Bones. 
'  '  1  Sphenoid  Bone. 
I  Ethmoid  (sieve-like  bone  at  root  of  nose). 

t  Occipital  Bone  (back  and  base  of  skull). 

1" 

f  Two  Superior  Maxillary  (upper  jaw)  Bones. 
Inferior  Maxillary  (lower  jaw)  Bone. 
Two  Malar  (cheek)  Bones. 

si  - 

2.  FACE  

j  Two  Lachrymal  Bones. 
"   Two  Turbinated  (scroll  like)  Bones,  each  side  of  nose 

fit    hrmao  \ 

E   ' 

M 

\ik  oones.) 

Two  Nasal  Bones  (bridge  of  nose). 
Vomer  (the  bone  between  the  nostrils). 
L  Two  Palate  Bones. 

{Hammer. 

3.  EARS.  .  . 

Anvil. 

(6  bones.) 

Stirrup. 

0 
EH 

(  Cervical  Vertebra  (seven  vertebra?  of  the  neck). 
^        f  1.  SPINAL  COLUMN.  -<  Dorsal  Vertebrae  (twelve  vertebrae  of  the  back). 
£                                              (  Lumbar  Vertebrae  (five  vertebrae  of  the  loins). 

H 

B? 

EH  a: 

2.  RIBS 

(  True  Ribs. 
•  '    j  False  Ribs. 

E3  1  W  5  "^  3.  STERNUM  (breast-bone). 

M     g§ 

4.  Os  HYOIDES  (bone  at  the  root  of  tongue). 

CQ 

I  Two  Innominata. 

B 

5.  PELVIS... 

.  .  -<  Sacrum. 

H 

(  Coccyx. 

W 

EH 

r  dhnnlfW                  J     ClttVlCle. 

f  S1  5ulder  1  Scapula. 

| 

1.  UPPER  LIMBS. 

(6k  bones.) 

Arm                    J  Humerus. 
m  1  Vina  and  Radius. 

3? 

(  Eight  Wrist  or  Carpal  Bones. 
1  Hand  4  Five  Metacarpal  Bones. 

H  1  - 

(  Phalanges  (Ik  b<jnes). 

W  ~* 

(  Femur. 

EH  ^ 

r  Leg  4  Patella. 

v~' 

2.  LOWER  LIMBS  . 

I  Tibia  and  Fibula. 

Pj 

(60  bones.) 

(  Seven  Tar  sal  Boms. 

I  Foot  •<  Five  Metatarsal  Bones. 

(  Phalanges  (Ik  bones). 

f  1.  Uses. 

2.  Composition. 

r 

1.   FORM,  STRUCTURE,  ETC.,  J  3.  Structure. 

OF  THE  BONES.           j  4.  Growth. 

5.  Repair. 

THE  SKELETON. 

6.  The  Joints. 

2.  CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  '  g*  rphg  TJ.^^^ 

i 

BONES.              1  g;  The  Limbg; 

THE  SKELETON. 


I.  FORM,  STRUCTURE,  ETC.,  OF  THE  BONES. 

(See  page  269.) 

The  Skeleton,  or  frame-work  of  the  "House  we 
live  in,"  is  composed  of  about  200  bones.* 

Uses  and  Forms  of  the  Bones. — They  have  three 
principal  uses  :  1 .  To  protect  the  delicate  organs  ;  f 
2.  To  serve  as  levers  on  which  the  muscles  may  act 
to  produce  motion ;  and  3.  To  preserve  the  shape  of 
the  body. 

Bones  differ  in  form  according  to  the  uses  they 
subserve.  For  convenience  in  walking,  some  are 
long ;  for  strength  and  compactness,  some  are  short 
and  thick ;  for  covering  a  cavity,  some  are  flat ;  and 
for  special  purposes,  some  are  irregular.  The  gen- 
eral form  is  such  as  to  combine  strength  and  light- 

*  The  precise  number  varies  in  different  periods  of  life.  Several  which 
are  separated  in  youth  become  united  in  old  age.  Thus  five  of  the  "false 
vertebrae  "  at  the  base  of  the  spine  early  join  in  one  great  bone— the  sacrum ; 
while  four  tiny  ones  below  it  often  run  into  a  bony  mass— the  coccyx  (Pig.  6) ; 
in  the  child,  the  sternum  is  composed  of  eight  pieces,  while  in  the  adult  it 
consists  of  only  three.  While,  however,  the  number  of  the  bones  is  uncer- 
tain, their  relative  length  is  so  exact  that  the  length  of  the  entire  skeleton, 
and  thence  the  height  of  the  man,  can  be  obtained  by  measuring  a  single 
one  of  the  principal  bones.  Fossil  bones  and  those  found  at  Pompeii  have 
the  same  proportion  as  our  own. 

t  An  organ  is  a  portion  of  the  body  designed  for  a  particular  use,  called 
its  function.  Thus  the  heart  circulates  the  blood ;  the  liver  produces  the  bile. 


4  THE     SKELETON.  [5,6. 

ness.  For  example,  all  the  long  bones  of  the  limbs 
.are  round  tind  hollow,  thus  giving  with  the  same 
weight  a'  greater  strength,*  and  also  a  larger  surface 
for  the  attachment  of  the  muscles. 

The  Composition  of  the  Bones  at  maturity  is 
about  one  part  animal  to  two  parts  mineral  matter. 
The  proportion  varies  with  the  age.  In  youth  it  is 
nearly  half  and  half,  while  in  old  age  the  mineral  is 
greatly  in  excess.  By  soaking  a  bone  in  weak  muri- 
atic acid,  and  thus  dissolving  the  mineral  matter,  its 
shape  will  not  change,  but  its  stiffness  will  disap- 
pear, leaving  a  tough,  gristly  substance  f  (cartilage) 
which  can  be  bent  like  rubber. 

If  the  bone  be  burned  in  the  fire,  thus  consuming 
the  animal  matter,  the  shape  will  still  be  the  same, 
but  it  will  have  lost  its  tenacity,  and  the  beautiful, 

*  Cut  a  sheet  of  foolscap  in  two  pieces.  Roll  one  half  into  a  compact 
cylinder,  and  fold  the  other  into  a  close,  flat  strip ;  support  the  ends  of  each 
and  hang  weights  in  the  middle  until  they  bend.  The  superior  strength  of 
the  roll  will  astonish  one  unfamiliar  with  this  mechanical  principle.  In  a 
rod,  the  particles  break  in  succession,  first  those  on  the  outside,  and  later 
those  in  the  center.  In  a  tube,  the  particles  are  all  arranged  where  they 
resist  the  first  strain.  Iron  pillars  are  therefore  cast  hollow.  Stalks  of 
grass  and  grain  are  so  light  as  to  bend  before  a  breath  of  wind,  yet  are 
stiff  enough  to  sustain  their  load  of  seed.  Bone  has  been  found  by  experi- 
ment to  possess  twice  the  resisting  property  of  solid  oak. 

t  Mix  a  wine-glass  of  muriatic  acid  with  a  pint  of  water,  and  place  in 
it  a  sheep's  rib.  In  a  day  or  two,  the  bone  will  become  so  soft  that  it  can 
be  tied  into  a  knot.  In  the  same  way,  an  egg  may  be  made  so  pliable  that 
it  can  be  crowded  into  a  narrow-necked  bottle,  within  which  it  will  expand, 
and  become  an  object  of  great  curiosity  to  the  uninitiated.  By  boiling 
bones  at  a  high  temperature,  the  animal  matter  separates  in  the  form  of 
gelatine.  Dogs  and  cats  extract  the  animal  matter  from  the  bones  they 
eat.  Fossil  bones  deposited  in  the  ground  during  the  Geologic  period, 
Were  found  by  Cuvier  to  contain  considerable  animal  matter.  Gelatine 
was  actually  extracted  from  the  Cambridge  mastodon,  and  made  into  glue. 
A  tolerably  nutritious  food  might  thus  be  manufactured  from  bones  older 
than  man  himself. 


0,7.] 


THE     COMPOSITION     OF     THE     BONES. 


FIG.  2. 


pure-white   residue*   may   be   crumbled  into  powder 
with  the  fingers. 

We  thus  see  that  a  bone  receives 
hardness  and  rigidity  from  its  mineral, 
and  tenacity  and  elasticity  from  its 
animal  matter. 

The  entire  bone  is  at  first  composed 
of  cartilage,  which  gradually  ossifies  or 
turns  to  boiie.f  Certain  portions  near 
the  joints  are  long  delayed  in  this 
process,  and  by  their  elasticity  assist 
in  breaking  the  shock  of  a  fall.];  Hence 

*  From  bones  thus  calcined,  the  phosphorus  of  the 
chemist  is  made.  See  Steele's  "Popular  Chemistry," 
page  114.  If  the  animal  matter  be  not  consumed,  but 
only  charred,  the  bone  will  be  black  and  brittle.  In  this 
way,  the  "bone-black"  of  commerce  is  manufactured. 

t  The  ossification  of  the  bones  on  the  sides  and 
upper  part  of  the  skull,  for  example,  begins  by  a  rounded 
spot  in  the  middle  of  each  one.  From  this  spot  the  ossi- 
fication extends  outward  in  every  direction,  thus  gradu- 
ally approaching  the  edges  of  the  bone.  When  two 
adjacent  bones  meet,  there  will  be  a  line  where  their 
edges  are  in  contact  with  each  other,  but  have  not  yet 
united ;  but  when  more  than  two  bones  meet  in  this 
way,  there  will  be  an  empty  space  between  them  at 
their  point  of  junction.  Thus,  if  you  lay  down  three 
coins  upon  the  table  with  their  edges  touching  one  an- 
other, there  will  be  a  three-sided  space  in  the  middle  between  them ;  if  you 
lay  down  four  coins  in  the  same  manner,  the  space  between  them  will  be 
four-sided.  Now  at  the  back  part  of  the  head  there  is  a  spot  where  three 
bones  come  together  in  this  way,  leaving  a  small,  three-sided  opening  be- 
tween them:  this  is  called  the  "posterior  fontanelle."  On  the  top  of  the 
head,  four  bones  come  together,  leaving  between  them  a  large,  four-sided 
opening:  this  is  called  the  "anterior  fontanelle."  These  openings  are 
termed  the  fontanelles,  because  we  can  feel  the  pulsations  of  the  brain 
through  them,  like  the  bubbling  of  water  in  a  fountain.  They  gradually 
diminish  in  size,  owing  to  the  growth  of  the  bony  parts  around  them,  and 
are  completely  closed  at  the  age  of  four  years  after  birth.— DALTON. 

%  Frogs  and  toads,  which  move  by  jumping,  and  consequently  receive 


The  Thigh-bone,  or 
Femur,  sawed 


6 


THE     SKELETON. 


[7,8. 


the  bones  of  children  are  tough,  are  riot  readily  fract- 
ured, and  when  broken  easily  heal  again ;  *  while 
those  of  elderly  people  are  liable  to  fracture,  and  do 
not  quickly  unite. 

The   Structure   of  the   Bones.  —  When   a  bone   is 
sawed  lengthwise,  it  is  found  to  be  a  compact  shell 

FIG.  3. 


A  thin  slice  of  Bone,  highly  magnified,  showing  the  lacunce,  the  tiny  tubes  (cauali- 
culi)  radiating  from  them,  and  four  Haversian  canals,  three  seen  crosswise  and  one 
lengthwise. 

filled  with  a  spongy  substance.  This  filling  increases 
in  quantity,  and  becomes  more  porous  at  the  ends  of 
the  bone,  thus  giving  greater  size  to  form  a  strong 
joint,  while  the  solid  portion  increases  near  the 

so  many  jars,  retain  these  unossified  portions  (epiphyses)  nearly  through 
life;  while  alligators  and  turtles,  whose  position  is  sprawling,  and  whose 
motions  are  measured,  do  not  have  them  at  all.— LIEIDY. 

*  This  is  only  one  of  the  many  illustrations  of  the  Infinite  care  that 
watches  over  helpless  infancy,  until  knowledge  and  ability  are  acquired  to 
meet  the  perils  of  life, 


8,9.]  GROWTH     OF     THE     BONES.  7 

middle,  where  strength  alone  is  needed.  Each  fiber 
of  this  bulky  material  diminishes  the  shock  of  a 
sudden  blow,  and  also  acts  as  a  beam  to  brace  the 
exterior  wall.  The  recumbent  position  of  the  alli- 
gator protects  him  from  falls,  and  therefore  his  bones 
contain  very  little  spongy  substance. 

In  the  body,  bones  are  not  the  dry,  dead,  blanched 
things  they  commonly  seem  to  be,  but  are  moist,  liv- 
ing, pinkish  structures,  covered  with  a  tough  mem- 
brane, called  the  per-i-o-s'-te-um*  (pert,  around,  and 
osteon,  a  bone),  while  the  hollow  is  filled  with  mar- 
row, rich  in  fat,  and  full  of  blood-vessels.  If  we  ex- 
amine a  thin  slice  with  the  microscope,  we  shall  see 
black  spots  with  lines  running  in  all  directions,  and 
looking  very  like  minute  insects.  These  are  really 
little  cavities,  called  la-cu'-ncej  from  which  radiate 
tiny  tubes.  The  lacunae  are  arranged  in  circles 
around  larger  tubes,  termed  from  their  discoverer, 
Haversian  canals,  which  serve  as  passages  for  the 
blood-vessels  that  nourish  the  bone. 

Growth  of  the  Bones. — By  means  of  this  system 
of  canals,  the  blood  circulates  as  freely  through  the 
bones  as  through  any  part  of  the  body,  The  whole 
structure  is  constantly  but  slowly  changing,;);  old 

*  The  relations  of  the  periosteum  to  the  bone  are  very  interesting.  In- 
stances are  on  record  where  the  bone  has  been  removed,  leaving  the  peri- 
osteum, from  which  the  entire  bone  was  afterward  renewed. 

t  When  the  bone  is  dry,  the  lacunae  are  filled  with  air,  which  refracts 
the  light,  so  that  none  of  it  reaches  the  eye,  and  hence  the  cavities  appear 
black. 

$  Bone  is  sometimes  produced  with  surprising  rapidity.  The  great  Irish 
Elk  is  calculated  by  Prof.  Owen  to  have  cast  off  and  renewed  annually  in 
its  antlers  eighty  pounds  of  bone, 


THE  SKELETON.  [9,10. 

material  being  taken  out  and  new  put  in.  A  curi- 
ous illustration  is  seen  in  the  fact  that  if  madder 
be  mixed  with  the  food  of  pigs,  it  will  tinge  their 
bones  red. 

Repair  of  the  Bones. — When  a  bone  is  broken,  the 
blood  at  once  oozes  out  of  the  fractured  ends.  This 
soon  gives  place  to  a  watery  fluid,  which  in  a  fort- 
night thickens  to  a  gristly  substance,  strong  enough 
to  hold  them  in  place.  Bone-matter  is  then  slowly 
deposited,  which  in  five  or  six  weeks  will  unite  the 
broken  parts.  Nature,  at  first,  apparently  endeavors 
to  remedy  the  weakness  of  the  material  by  excess  in 
the  quantity,  and  so  the  new  portion  is  larger  than 
the  old.  But  the  extra  matter  will  be  gradually 
absorbed,  sometimes  so  perfectly  as  to  leave  no  trace 
of  the  injury.  (See  p.  271.) 

A  broken  limb  should  always  be  held  in  place 
by  splints,  to  enable  this  process  to  go  on  uninter- 
ruptedly, and  also  lest  a  sudden  jar  might  rupture 
the  partially-mended  break.  For  a  long  time,  the 
new  portion  consists  largely  of  animal  matter,  and 
so  is  tender  and  pliable.  The  utmost  care  is  there- 
fore necessary  to  prevent  a  malformation. 

The  Joints  are  packed  with  a  soft,  smooth  carti- 
lage, or  gristle,  which  fits  so  perfectly  as  to  be  air- 
tight. Upon  convex  surfaces,  it  is  thickest  at  the 
middle,  and  upon  concave  surfaces,  it  is  thickest  at 
the  edge,  or  where  the  wear  is  greatest.  In  addi- 
tion, the  ends  of  the  bones  are  covered  with  a  thin 
membrane,  the  synovia!  (sun,  with  ;  ovum,  an  egg), 
which  secretes  a  viscid  fluid,  not  unlike  the  white  of 


10-12.]  THE     HEAD.  9 

an  egg.  This  lubricates  the  joints,  and  prevents  the 
noise  and  wear  of  friction.  The  body  is  the  only 
machine  that  oils  itself. 

The  bones  which  form  the  joint  are  tied  with 
stout  ligaments  (ligo,  I  bind),  or  bands,  of  a  smooth, 
silvery  white  tissue,*  so  strong  that  the  bones  are 
sometimes  broken  without  injuring  the  fastenings. 


II.    CLASSIFICATION    OF   THE   BONES. 

FOR  convenience,  the  bones  of  the  skeleton  are 
considered  in  three  divisions :  the  head,  the  trunk, 
and  the  limbs. 

I.     THE     HEAD. 

The  Bones  of  the  Skull  and  the  Face  form  a 
cavity  for  the  protection  of  the  brain  and  the  four 
organs  of  sense,  viz. :  sight,  smell,  taste,  and  hearing. 
All  these  bones  are  immovable  except  the  lower  jaw, 
which  is  hinged  f  at  the  back  so  as  to  allow  for  the 
opening  and  shutting  of  the  mouth. 

The  Skull  is  composed,  in  general,  of  two  compact 
plates,  with  a  spongy  layer  between.  These  are  in 
several  pieces,  the  outer  ones  being  joined  by  notched 
edges,  sutures  (sut'yurs),  in  the  way  carpenters  term 
dove-tailing.  (See  Fig.  4.) 

*  The  general  term  tissue  is  applied  to  the  various  textures  of  which  the 
organs  are  composed.  For  example,  the  osseous  tissue  forms  the  bones ;  the 
fibrous  tissue,  the  skin,  tendons,  and  ligaments. 

t  A  ring  of  cartilage  is  inserted  in  its  joints,  something  after  the  man- 
ner of  a  washer  in  machinery.  This  follows  the  movements  of  the  jaw,  and 
admits  of  freer  motion,  while  it  guards  against  dislocation. 


10  THE     SKELETON.  [12. 

The  peculiar  structure  and  form  of  the  skull  afford 
a  perfect  shelter  for  the  brain — an  organ  so  delicate 
that,  if  unprotected,  an  ordinary  blow  would  destroy 
it.  Its  oval  or  egg  shape  adapts  it  to  resist  pressure. 

FIG.  4. 


The,  8kutt.—\,  frontal  bone;  2,  parietal  bone;  3,  temporal  bone;  4,  the  sphenoid 
bone ;  5,  ethmoid  bone ;  6,  superior  maxillary  (upper  jaw)  bone ;  7,  malar  bone  ; 
8,  lachrymal  bone  •  9,  nasal  bone ;  10,  inferior  maxillary  (lower  jaw)  bonf. 

The  smaller  and  stronger  end  is  in  front,  where  the 
danger  is  greatest.  Projections  before  and  behind 
shield  the  less  protected  parts.  The  hard  plates  are 
not  easy  to  penetrate.*  The  spongy  packing  deadens 

*  Instances  have  been  known  where  bullets,  striking  against  the  skull, 
have  glanced  off,  been  flattened,  or  even  split  into  halves.  In  the  Penin- 
sular Campaign,  the  author  saw  a  man  who  had  been  struck  in  the  fore- 
head by  a  bullet  which,  instead  of  penetrating  the  brain,  had  followed  the 
skull  around  to  the  back  of  the  head,  and  there  passed  out. 


12,  13.] 


THE     SPINAL     COLUMN. 


11 


every  blow.*  The  separate  pieces  with 
their  curious  joinings  disperse  any  jar 
which  one  may  receive,  and  also  pre- 
vent fractures  from  spreading. 

The  frequent  openings  in  this 
strong  bone-box  afford  safe  avenues 
for  the  passage  of  numerous  nerves 
and  vessels  which  communicate  be- 
tween the  brain  and  the  rest  of  the 
body. 

2      THE    TRUNK. 

The  Trunk  has  two  important  cav- 
ities. The  upper  part,  or  chest,  con- 
tains the  heart  and  the  lungs,  and 
the  lower  part,  or  abdomen,  holds  the 
stomach,  liver,  kidneys,  and  other  or- 
gans (Fig.  31).  The  principal  bones 
are  those  of  the  spine,  the  ribs,  and 
the  hips. 

The  Spine  consists  of  twenty-four 
bones,  between  which  are  placed  pads 
of  cartilage,  f  A  canal  is  hollowed 

FIG.  5. 


FIG.  6. 


The 


*  An  experiment  resembling  the 
familiar  one  of  the  balls  in  Natural 
Philosophy  ("  Steele's  Popular  Phys- 
ics," Fig.  6,  p.  26),  beautifully  illus- 
trates this  point.  Several  balls  of 
ivory  are  suspended  by  cords,  as  in 
Fig.  5.  If  A  be  raised  and  then  let  fall,  it  will  trans- 
mit the  force  to  B,  and  that  to  C,  and  so  on  until  F 
is  reached,  which  will  fly  off  with  the  impulse.  If 

now  a  ball  of   spongy  bone  be  substituted  for  an  ivory  one  anywhere  in 
the  line,  the  force  will  be  checked,  and  the  last  ball  will  not  stir. 

t  These  pads  vary  in  thickness  from  one  fourth  to  one  half  an  inch. 


the  seven  ver- 
tebra,   of   the 
neck,  cervical; 
the  twelve  of 
the  back,  dor- 
sal; the  five  of  the  loins, 
lumbar;  a,  the  sacrum, 
and  b,  the  coccyx,  com- 
prising the  nine  "false 
vertebrce  "  (p.  3). 


12  THE     SKELETON.  [13,14 

out  of  the  column  for  the  safe  passage  of  the  spinal 
cord.  (See  Fig.  50.)  Projections  (processes)  at  the 
back  and  on  either  side  are  abundant  for  the  attach- 
ment of  the  muscles.  The  packing  acts  as  a  cushion 
to  prevent  any  jar  from  reaching  the  brain  when  we 
jump  or  run,  while  the  double  curve  of  the  spine 
also  tends  to  disperse  the  force  of  a  fall.  Thus  on 
every  side  the  utmost  caution  is  taken  to  guard  that 
precious  gem  in  its  casket. 

The  Perfection  of  the  Spine  surpasses  all  human 
contrivances.  Its  various  uses  seem  a  bundle  of  con- 
tradictions. A  chain  of  twenty-four  bones  is  made 
so  stiff  that  it  will  bear  a  heavy  burden,  and  so 
flexible  that  it  will  bend  like  rubber ;  yet,  all  the 
while,  it  transmits  no  shock,  and  even  hides  a  deli- 
cate nerve  within  that  would  thrill  with  the  slightest 

FIG.  7. 


A 

B,  the  first  cervical  vertebra,  the  atlas ;   A,  the  atlas,  and  the  second  cervical 
vertebra,  the  axis  ;   e,  the  odontoid  process ;   c,  tfie  foramen. 

touch.  Resting  upon  it,  the  brain  is  borne  without 
a  tremor;  and,  clinging  to  it,  the  vital  organs  are 
carried  without  fear  of  harm. 

They  become  condensed  by  the  weight  they  bear  during  the  day,  so  that 
we  are  somewhat  shorter  at  evening  than  in  the  morning.  Their  elasticity 
causes  them  to  resume  their  usual  size  during  the  night,  or  when  we  lie 
down  for  a  time. 


14,15.]  THE     RIBS.  13 

The  Skull  Articulates  with  (is  jointed  to)  the 
spine  in  a  peculiar  manner.  On  the  top  of  the  upper 
vertebra  (atlas*)  are  two  little  hollows  (a,  b,  Fig.  7), 
nicely  packed  and  lined  with  the  synovial  membrane, 
into  which  fit  the  corresponding  projections  on  the 
lower  part  of  the  skull,  and  thus  the  head  can  rock 
to  and  fro.  The  second  vertebra  (axis)  has  a  peg,  e, 
which  projects  through  a  hole,  c,  in  the  first. 


The  Thorax,  or  Chest,    a,  the  sternum ;  b  to  c,  the  true  ribs ;  d  to  h,  tJie  falM  ribs ; 
g,  h,  the  floating  ribs  •  i,  k,  the  dorsal  vertebrae. 

The  surfaces  of  both  vertebrae  are  so  smooth  that 
they  easily  glide  on  each  other,  and  thus,  when  we 
move  the  head  side  wise,  the  atlas  turns  around  the 
peg,  e,  of  the  axis. 

The    Ribs,    also    twenty-four  in   number,   are   ar- 

*  Thus  called  because,  as,  in  ancient  fable,  the  god  Atlas  supported  the 
world  on  his  shoulders,  so  in  the  body  this  bone  bears  the  head. 


14  THE     SKELETON.  [16,  16. 

ranged  in  pairs  on  each  side  of  the  chest.  At  the 
back,  they  are  all  attached  to  the  spine.  In  front, 
the  upper  seven  pairs  are  tied  by  cartilages  to  the 
breast-bone  (sternum) ;  three  are  fastened  to  each 
other  and  to  the  cartilage  above,  and  two,  the  float- 
ing ribs,  are  loose. 

The  natural  form  of  the  chest  is  that  of  a  cone 
diminishing  upward.  But,  owing  to  the  tightness  of 
the  clothing  commonly  worn,  the  reverse  is  often 
the  case.  The  long,  slender  ribs  give  lightness,*  the 
arched  form  confers  strength,  and  the  cartilages  im- 
part elasticity, — properties  essential  to  the  protection 
of  the  delicate  organs  within,  and  to  freedom  of  mo- 
tion in  respiration.  (See  note,  p.  80.) 

FIG.  9. 


Ihe  Pelvis,    a,  the  sacrum;  b,  b,  the  right  and  the  left  innominatum. 

The  Hip-bones,  called  by  anatomists  the  innomi- 
nata,  or  nameless  bones,  form  an  irregular  basin 

*  If  the  chest-wall  were  in  one  bone  thick  enough  to  resist  a  blow,  it 
would  be  unwieldy  and  heavy.  As  it  is,  the  separate  bones  bound  by  car- 
tilages yield  gradually,  and  diffuse  the  force  among  them  all,  and  so  are 
rarely  broken. 


16,  17.] 


THE     LIMBS. 


15 


FIG.  10. 


styled  the  pelvis  (pelvis,  a  basin).  In  the  upper 
part,  is  the  foot  of  the  spinal  column — a  wedge- 
shaped  bone  termed  the  sacwum*  (sacred),  firmly 
planted  here  between  the  wide-spreading  and  solid 
bones  of  the  pelvis,  like  the  key-stone  to  an  arch, 
and  giving  a  steady  support  to  the  heavy  burden 
above. 

3.    THE   LIMBS. 

Two  Sets  of  Limbs  branch  from  the  trunk,  viz.: 
the  upper,  and  the  lower.  They  closely  resemble 
each  other.  The  arm  corresponds  to  the  thigh  ;  the 
fore-arm,  to  the  leg ;  the  wrist,  to 
the  ankle ;  the  fingers,  to  the 
toes.  The  fingers  and  the  toes  are 
so  much  alike  that  they  receive 
the  same  name,  digits,  while  the 
several  bones  of  both  have  also 
the  common  appellation,  pha- 
langes. The  differences  which 
exist  grow  out  of  their  varying 
uses.  The  foot  is  characterized 
by  strength  ;  the  hand,  by  mo- 
bility. 

i.  The  Upper  Limbs.— The 
Shoulder.  —  The  bones  of  the 
shoulder  _are  the  collar  -  bone 

(clavicle),  and  the  shoulder-blade  (scapula).  The 
clavicle  (clavis,  a  key)  is  a  long,  slender  bone,  shaped 
like  the  Italic  /.  It  is  fastened  at  one  end  to  the 


The  Shoulder-joint,     a,  the 
clavicle ;  b,  the  scapula 


*  So  called  because  it  was  anciently  offered  in  sacrifice. 


16 


THE     SKELETON. 


[17,  18. 


FIG.  11. 


breast-bone  and  the  first  rib,  and,  at  the  .other,  to 
the  shoulder-blade.  (See  Fig.  1.)  It  thus  holds  the 
shoulder-joint  out  from  the  chest,  and  gives  the  arm 
greater  play.  If  it  be  removed  or  broken,  the  head 
of  the  arm-bone  will  fall,  and  the  motions  of  the 
arm  be  greatly  restricted.* 

The  Shoulder-blade  is  a  thin,  flat,  triangular  bone, 
fitted  to  the  top  and  back  of  the  chest,  and  designed 

to  give  a   foundation  for  the 
muscles  of  the  shoulder. 

The  Shoulder -joint.— The 
arm-bone,  or  humerus,  articu- 
lates with  the  shoulder-blade 
by  a  ball-and-socket  joint.  This 
consists  of  a  cup-like  cavity 
in  the  latter  bone,  and  a 
rounded  head  in  the  former, 
to  fit  it, — thus  affording  a  free 
rotary  motion.  The  shallow- 
ness  of  the  socket  accounts 
for  the  frequent  dislocation 
of  this  joint,  but  a  deeper  one 
would  diminish  the  easy  swing 
of  the  arm. 

The  Elbow. — At  the  elbow, 
the  humerus  articulates  with 
the  ulna — a  slender  bone  on  the  inner  side  of  the 
fore-arm — by  a  hinge-joint  which  admits  of  motion  in 

*  Animals  which  use  the  forelegs  only  for  support  (as  the  horse,  ox, 
'etc.),  do  not  possess  this  bone.  "It  is  found  in  those  that  dig,  fly,  climb, 
and  seize." 


Bones  of  the  right  Fore-arm.  H, 
tfie  humerus:  K,  the  radius;  and 
U,  the  ulna. 


18,  19.] 


THE     HAND. 


17 


FIG.  12. 


only  two  directions,  i.  e.,  backward  and  forward.  The 
ulna  is  small  at  its  lower  end ;  the  radius,  or  large 
bone  of  the  fore-arm,  on  the  contrary,  is  small  at  its 
upper  end,  while  it  is  large  at  its  lower  end,  where 
it  forms  the  wrist- joint.  At  the  elbow,  the  head  of 
the  radius  is  convex  and  fits  into  a  shallow  cavity 
in  the  ulna,  while  at  the  wrist  the  ulna  plays  in  a 
similar  socket  in  the  radius.  Thus  the  radius  may 
roll  over  and  even  cross  the  ulna. 

The  Wrist,   or   carpus,   consists   of   two   rows   of 
very  irregular  bones,  one  of    which  articulates  with 
the  fore-arm  ;   the   other,  with   the   hand.      They  are 
placed  side  to  side,  and  so 
firmly  fastened  as  to  admit 
of    only   a   gliding    motion. 
This   gives   little   play,   but 
great     strength,     elasticity, 
and      power      of     resisting 
shocks. 

^/The  Hand.— The  meta- 
carpal  (mela,  beyond;  kar- 
posj  wrist),  or  bones  of  the 
palm,  support  each  a  thumb 
or  a  finger.  Each  finger  has 
three  bones,  while  the  thumb 
has  only  two.  The  first 
bone  of  the  thumb,  stand- 
ing apart  from  the  rest,  enjoys  a  special  freedom  of 
motion,  arid  adds  greatly  to  the  usefulness  of  the 
hand. 

The  first  bone  (Figs.  11,  12)  of  each  finger  is  so 


the  Hand  and  the   Wrist. 


18  THE     SKELETON.  [19,20. 

attached  to  the  corresponding  metacarpal  bone  as  to 
move  in  several  directions  upon  it,  but  the  other 
phalanges  form  hinge- joints. 

The  fingers  are  named  in  order:  the  thumb,  the 
index,  the  middle,  the  ring,  and  the  little  linger. 
Their  different  lengths  cause  them  to  lit  the  hollow 
of  the  hand  when  it  is  closed,  and  probably  enable 
us  more  easily  to  grasp  objects  of  varying  size.  If 
the  hand  clasps  a  ball,  the  tips  of  the  fingers  will  be 
in  a  straight  line. 

The  hand  in  its  perfection  belongs  only  to  man. 
Its  elegance  of  outline,  delicacy  of  mold,  and  beauty 
of  color  have  made  it  the  study  of  artists  ;  while  its 
exquisite  mobility  and  adaptation  as  a  perfect  instru- 
ment have  led  many  philosophers  to  attribute  man's 
superiority  even  more  to  the  hand  than  to  the 
mind.* 

2.  The  Lower  Limbs. — The  Hip. — The  thigh-bone, 
or  femur,  is  the  largest  and  necessarily  the  strongest 
in  the  skeleton,  since  at  every  step  it  has  to  bear 


*  How  constantly  the  hand  aids  us  in  explaining  or  enforcing  a 
thought !  We  affirm  a  fact  by  placing  the  hand  as  if  we  would  rest  it 
firmly  on  a  body;  we  deny  by  a  gesture  putting  the  false  or  erroneous 
proposition  away  from  us;  we  express  doubt  by  holding  the  hand  sus- 
pended, as  if  hesitating  whether  to  take  or  reject.  When  we  part  from 
dear  friends,  or  greet  them  again  after  long  absence,  the  hand  extends 
toward  them  as  if  to  retain,  or  to  bring  them  sooner  to  us.  If  a  recital  or 
a  proposition  is  revolting,  we  reject  it  energetically  in  gesture  as  in  thought. 
In  a  friendly  adieu  we  wave  our  good  wishes  to  him  who  is  their  object; 
but  when  it  expresses  enmity,  by  a  brusque  movement  we  sever  every  tie. 
The  open  hand  is  carried  backward  to  express  fear  or  horror,  as  well  as  to 
avoid  contact ;  it  goes  forward  to  meet  the  hand  of  friendship ;  it  is  raised 
suppliantly  in  prayer  toward  Him  from  whom  we  hope  for  help;  it  ca- 
resses lovingly  the  downy  cheek  of  the  infant,  and  rests  on  its  head  in- 
voking the  blessing  of  Heaven.— Wonders  of  the  Human  Body. 


20,  21.1 


THE     HIP. 


19 


the  weight  of  the  whole  body.  It  articulates  with 
the  hip-bone  by  a  ball-and-socket  joint.  Unlike  the 
shoulder-joint,  the  cup  here  is  deep,  thus  affording 


EIG.  13. 


The  Mechanism  of  the  Hip-joint. 

less  play,  but  greater  strength.    It  fits  so  tightly  that 
the  pressure  of  the  air  largely  aids  in   keeping  the 
bones  in  place.*     Indeed,  when  the  muscles  are  cut 
away,  great  force  is  required  to  detach  the  limbs. 
The  Knee  is  strengthened  by  the  patella,  or  knee- 

*  In  order  to  test  this,  a  hole  was  bored  through  a  hip-bone,  so  as  to 
admit  air  into  the  socket ;  the  thigh-bone  at  once  fell  out  as  far  as  the 
ligaments  would  permit.  An  experiment  was  also  devised  whereby  a  suit- 
ably-prepared hip-joint  was  placed  under  the  receiver  of  an  air-pump.  On 
exhausting  the  air,  the  weight  of  the  femur  caused  it  to  drop  out  of  the 
socket,  while  the  re-admission  of  the  air  raised  it  to  its  place.  Without  this 
arrangement,  the  adjacent  muscles  would  have  been  compelled  to  bear  the 
additional  weight  of  the  thigh-bone  every  time  it  was  raised.  Now  the 
pressure  of  the  air  rids  them  of  this  unnecessary  burden,  and  hence  they 
are  less  easily  fatigued.— WEBER, 


20  THE  SKELETON.  [21,22. 

pan  (patella,  little  dish),  a  chestnut-shaped  bone 
firmly  fastened  over  the  joint. 

The  shin-bone,  or  tibia,  the  large,  triangular  bone 
on  the  inner  side  of  the  leg,  articulates  both  with  the 
femur  and  the  foot  by  hinge-joints.  The  knee-joint 
is  so  made,  however,  as  to  admit  of  a  slight  rotary 
motion  \^hen  the  limb  is  not  extended. 

The  fibula  (fibula,  a  clasp),  the  small,  outside  bone 
of  the  leg,  is  firmly  bound  at  each  end  to  the  tibia. 
(See  Fig.  1.)  It  is  immovable,  and,  as  the  tibia  bears 
the  principal  weight  of  the  body,  the  chief  use  of 
this  second  bone  seems  to  be  to  give  more  surface  to 
which  the  muscles  may  be  attached.* 

The  Foot. — The  general  arrangement  of  the  foot  is 
strikingly  like  that  of  the  hand  (Fig.  1).  The  several 
parts  are  the  tarsus,  the  metatarsus,  and  the  pha- 
langes. The  graceful  arch  of  the  foot,  and  the  nu- 
merous bones  joined  by  cartilages,  give  an  elasticity 
to  the  step  that  could  never  be  attained  by  a  single, 
flat  bone.f  The  toes  naturally  lie  straight  forward  in 
the  line  of  the  foot.  Few  persons  in  civilized  na- 
tions, however,  have  naturally-formed  feet.  The  big 
toe  is  crowded  upon  the  others,  while  crossed  toes, 
nails  grown-in,  enormous  joints,  corns,  and  bunions 
abound. 


*  A  young  man  in  the  hospital  at  Limoges  had  lost  the  middle  part  of 
his  tibia.  The  lost  bone  was  not  reproduced,  but  the  fibula,  the  naturally 
weak  and  slender  part  of  the  leg,  became  thick  and  strong  enough  to  sup- 
port the  whole  body.— STANLEY'S  Lectures. 

t  The  foot  consists  of  an  arch,  the  base  of  which  is  more  extended  in 
front  than  behind,  and  the  whole  weight  of  the  body  is  made  to  fall  on  this 
arch  by  means  of  a  variety  of  joints.  These  joints  further  enable  the  foot 
to  be  applied,  without  inconvenience,  to  rough  and  uneven  surfaces,— HINTON. 


as,  23.]  THE     FOOT.  21 

The  Cause  of  these  Deformities  is  found  in  the 
shape  and  size  of  fashionable  boots  and  shoes.  The 
sole  ought  to  be  large  enough  for  full  play  of  mo- 
tion, the  uppers  should  not  crowd  the  toes,  and  the 
heels  should  be  low,  flat,  and  broad.  As  it  is,  there 
is  a  constant  warfare  between  Nature  and  our  shoe- 
makers,* and  we  are  the  victims.  The  narrow  point 
in  front  pinches  our  toes,  and  compels  them  to  over- 
ride one  another;  the  narrow  sole  compresses  the 
arch;  while  the  high  heel,  by  throwing  all  the 
weight  forward  on  the  toes,  strains  the  ankle,  and, 
by  sending  the  pressure  where  Nature  did  not  design 
it  to  fall,  causes  that  joint  to  become  enlarged.  The 
body  bends  forward  to  meet  the  demand  of  this  new 
motion,  and  thus  loses  its  uprightness  and  beauty, 
making  our  gait  stiff  and  ungraceful.  (See  p.  271.) 

Diseases,  etc. — 1.  Rickets,  a  disease  of  early  life, 
is  caused  by  a  lack  of  mineral  matter  in  the  bones, 
rendering  them  soft  and  pliable,  so  that  they  bend 
under  the  weight  of  the  body.  They  thus  become 
permanently  distorted,  and  of  course  are  weaker 
than  if  they  were  straight,  f  Rickets  is  most  common 
among  children  who  have  inherited  a  feeble  constitu- 

*  When  we  are  measured  for  boots  or  shoes,  we  should  stand  on  a  sheet 
of  paper,  and  have  the  shoemaker  mark  with  a  pencil  the  exact  outline  of 
our  feet  as  they  bear  our  whole  weight.  When  the  shoe  is  made,  the  sole 
should  exactly  cover  this  outline. 

t  Just  here  appears  an  exceedingly  beautiful  provision.  As  soon  as  the 
disproportion  of  animal  matter  ceases,  a  larger  supply  of  mineral  is  sent  to 
the  weak  points,  and  the  bones  actually  become  thicker,  denser,  harder, 
and  consequently  stronger  at  the  very  concave  part  where  the  stress  of 
pressure  is  greatest. — WATSON'S  Lectures.  We  shall  often  have  occasion  to 
refer  to  similar  wise  and  providential  arrangements  whereby  the  body  is 
enabled  to  remedy  defects,  anri  to  prepare  for  accidents. 


22  THE     SKELETON.  [23. 

tion  and  who  are  ill  fed,  or  who  live  in  damp,  un venti- 
lated houses.  "  Rickety  "  children  should  have  plenty 
of  fresh  air  and  sunlight,  nourishing  food,  comfortable 
clothing,  and,  in  short,  the  best  of  hygienic  care. 

2.  A  Felon  is  a  swelling  of  the  finger  or  thumb, 
usually  of  the  last  joint.      It  is  marked  by  an  accu- 
mulation beneath  the  periosteum  and  next  the  bone. 
The  physician  will  merely  cut  through   the    perios- 
teum, and  let  out  the  effete  matter.  • 

3.  Bow-legs  are   caused  by  children   standing    on 
their  feet  before  the  bones  of  the  lower  limbs  are 
strong  enough  to  bear  their  weight.     The  custom  of 
encouraging   young   children  to  stand   by  means  of 
a  chair  or  the  support  of  the  hand,  while  the  bones 
are  yet  soft  and  pliable,  is  a  cruel  one,  and  liable  to 
produce  permanent  deformity.     Nature  will  set  the 
child  on  its  feet  when  the  proper  time  comes. 

4.  Curvature  of  the  Spine. —  When  the    spine    is 
bent,    the    packing    between    the    vertebrae    becomes 
compressed    on    one    side    into    a    wedge-like    shape. 
After  a  time,  it  will  lose  its  elasticity,  and  the  spine 
will  become  distorted.    This  often  occurs  in  the  case 
of   students   who   bend   forward  to  bring  their  eyes 
nearer    their    books,    instead    of    lifting    their   books 
nearer  their  eyes,  or  who  raise  their  right  shoulder 
above  their  left  when   writing    at  a  desk  which   is 
too  high.     Round  shoulders,  small,  weak  lungs,  and, 
frequently,  diseases  of  the  spine  are  the  consequences. 
An  erect  posture  in  reading  or  writing  conduces  not 
alone  to  beauty  of  form,  but  also  to  health  of  body. 
We    shall    learn    hereafter    that    the    action    of    the 


23,24.]  DISEASES,     ETC.  23 

muscles  bears  an  important  part  in  preserving  the 
symmetry  of  the  spine.  Muscular  strength  comes 
from  bodily  activity;  hence,  one  of  the  best  pre- 
ventives of  spinal  curvature  is  daily  exercise  i»  the 
open  air. 

5.  Sprains  are  produced  when  the  ligaments  which 
bind  the  bones  of   a   joint  are  strained,   twisted,   or 
torn    from    their    attachments.      They    are    quite    as 
serious  as  a  broken  bone,  and  require  careful  atten- 
tion lest  they  lead  to  a  crippling  for  life.      By  pre- 
mature use    a    sprained    limb    may  be  permanently 
impaired.      Hence,   the   joint    should    be   kept    quiet, 
even  after  the  immediate  pain  is  gone. 

6.  A  Dislocation  is  the  forcible  displacement  of 
a  bone  from  its  socket.    It  is,  generally,  the  result  of 
a  fall  or  a  violent  blow.      The  tissues   of  the  joint 
are    often    ruptured,    while    the    contraction    of    the 
muscles  prevents  the  easy  return  of  the  bone  to  its 
place.    A  dislocation  should  be   reduced    as  soon  as 
possible   after  the  injury,  before  inflammation  super- 
venes. 


PRACTICAL     QUESTIONS. 

1.  Why  does  not  a  fall  hurt  a  child  as  much  as  it  does  a  grown  person  ? 

2.  Should  a  young  child  ever  be  urged  to  stand  or  walk? 

3.  What  is  meant  by  "  breaking  one's  neck  "  ? 

4.  Should  chairs  or  benches  have  straight  backs? 

5.  Should  a  child's  feet  be  allowed  to  dangle  from  a  high  seat? 

6.  Why  can  we  tell  whether  a  fowl  is  young  by  pressing  on  the  point 
>f  the  breast-bone? 

7.  What  is  the  use  of  the  marrow  in  the  bones? 

8.  Why  is  the  shoulder  so  often  put  out  of  joint? 

9.  How  can  yoti  tie  a  knot  in  a  bone? 


24  THE     SKELETON".  [24. 

10.  Why  are  high  pillows  injurious? 

11.  Is  a  stooping  posture  a  healthful  position? 

12.  Should  a  boot  have  a  heel-piece  ? 

13.  Why  should  one  always  sit  and  walk  erect? 

14.  Why  does  a  young  child  creep  rather  than  walk? 

15.  What  is  the  natural  direction  of  the  big  toe? 

16.  What  is  the  difference   between  a  sprain  and  a  fracture?     A  dis- 
location ? 

17.  Does  the  general  health  of  the  system  affect  the  strength  of  the 
bones  ? 

18.  Is  living  bone  sensitive  ?    Ans.— Scrape  a  bone,  and  its  vessels  bleed  ; 
cut  or  bore  a  bone,  and  its  granulations  sprout  up ;  break  a  bone,  and  it 
will  heal ;  cut  a  piece  away,  and  more  bone  will  readily  be  produced ;  hurt 
it  in  any  way,  and  it  inflames ;  burn  it,  and  it  dies.     Take  any  proof  of 
sensibility  but  the  mere  feeling  of  pain,  and  it  will  answer  to  the  proof.— 
BELL'S  Anatomy.     Animal  sensibility  would  be  inconvenient ;  it  is  therefore 
not  to  be  found  except  in  diseased  bone,  where  it  sometimes  exhibits  itself 
too  acutely.— TODD'S  Cyclopedia  of  Anatomy. 

19.  Is  the  constitution  of  bone  the  same  in  animals  as  in  man?    Ans.— 
The  bones  of  quadrupeds  do  not  differ  much  from  those  of  man.     In  gen- 
eral they  are  of  a  coarser  texture,  and  in  some,  as  in  those  of  the  elephant's 
head,  we  find  extensive  air-cells.— TODD'S  Anatomy 


\/ 


IL 

THE  MUSCLES. 


BEHOLD  tlie  outward  moving  frame, 
Its  living  marbles  jointed  strong 
With  glistening  band  and  silvery  thong, 
And  link'd  to  reason's  guiding  reins 
By  myriad  rings  in  trembling  chains, 
Each  graven  with  the  threaded  zone 
Which  claims  it  as  the  Master's  own." 

HOLMES. 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  MUSCLES. 


THE  USE,  STRUCT- 
URE, AND  ACTION- 
OF  THE  MUSCLES. 


r    1.  The  Use  of  the  Muscles. 

2.  Contractility  of  the  Muscles. 

3.  Arrangement  of  the  Muscles. 

4.  The  two  Kinds  of  Muscles. 

5.  The  Structure  of  the  Muscles. 

6.  The  Tendons  for  Fastening  Muscles. 

7.  The  Muscles  and  Bones  as  Levers. 

8.  The  Effect  of  Big  Joints. 

9.  Action  of  the  Muscles  in  Standing. 
10.  Action  of  the  Muscles  in  Walking. 


2.  THE  MUSCULAR  SENSE. 


HYGIENE    OF   THE 

MUSCLES. 


1.  Necessity  of  Exercise. 

2.  Time  for  Exercise. 

3.  Kinds  of  Exercise. 


4.  WONDERS  OF  THE  MUSCLES. 


5.  DISEASES., 


1.  St.  Vitus'  Dance. 

2.  Convulsions. 

3.  Locked-]  aw. 

4.  Gout. 

5.  Rheumatism. 

6.  Lumbago. 

I    7.  A  Ganglion. 


THE    MUSCLES. 

The  Use  of  the  Muscles.  —  The  skeleton  is  the 
image  of  death.  Its  unsightly  appearance  instinct- 
ively repels  us.  We  have  seen,  however,  what  uses 
it  subserves  in  the  body,  and  how  the  ugly-looking 
bones  abound  in  nice  contrivances  and  ingenious 
workmanship.  In  life,  the  frame-work  is  hidden  by 
the  flesh.  This  covering  is  a  mass  of  muscles,  which 
by  their  arrangement  and  their  properties  not  only 
give  form  and  symmetry  to  the  body,  but  also  pro- 
duce its  varied  movements. 

In  Fig.  14,  we  see  the  large  exterior  muscles. 
Beneath  these  are  many  others ;  while  deeply  hidden 
within  are  tiny,  delicate  ones,  too  small  to  be  seen 
with  the  naked  eye.  There  are,  in  all,  about  five 
hundred,  each  having  its  special  use,  and  all  working 
in  exquisite  harmony  and  perfection. 

Contractility. — The  peculiar  property  of  the  mus- 
cles is  their  power  of  contraction,  whereby  they  de- 
crease in  length  and  increase  in  thickness.*  This 
may  be  caused  by  an  effort  of  the  will,  by  cold,  by  a 
sharp  blow,  etc.  It  does  not  cease  at  death,  but,  in 
certain  cold-blooded  animals,  a  contraction  of  the 

*  The  maximum  force  of  this  contraction  has  been  estimated  as  high 
as  from  eierhty-five  to  one  hundred  and  fourteen  pounds  per  square  inch. 


30  THE     MUSCLES.  [29, 30. 

muscles  is  often  noticed  long  after  the  head  has 
been  cut  off. 

Arrangement  of  the  Muscles.* — The  muscles  are 
nearly  all  arranged  in  pairs,  each  with  its  antagonist, 
so  that,  as  they  contract  and  expand  alternately,  the 
bone  to  which  they  are  attached  is  moved  to  and 
fro.  (See  p.  275.) 

If  you  grasp  the  arm  tightly  with  your  hand  just 
above  the  elbow-joint,  and  bend  the  fore-arm,  you 
will  feel  the  muscle  on  the  inside  (biceps,  a,  Fig.  14) 
swell,  and  become  hard  and  prominent,  while  the  out- 
side muscle  (triceps,/)  will  be  relaxed.  Now  straighten 
the  arm,  and  the  swelling  and  hardness  of  the  inside 
muscle  will  vanish,  while  the  outside  one  will,  in 
turn,  become  rigid.  So,  also,  if  you  clasp  the  arm 
just  below  the  elbow,  and  then  open  and  shut  the 
fingers,  you  can  feel  the  alternate  expanding  and  re- 
laxing of  the  muscles  on  opposite  sides  of  the  arms. 

If  the  muscles  on  one  side  of  the  face  become 
palsied,  those  on  the  other  side  will  draw  the  mouth 
that  way.  Squinting  is  caused  by  one  of  the  straight 
muscles  of  the  eye  (Fig.  17)  contracting  more 
strongly  than  its  antagonist. 

Kinds  of  Muscles. — There  are  two  kinds  of  mus- 

*  "  Could  we  behold  properly  the  muscular  fibers  in  operation,  nothing, 
as  a  mere  mechanical  exhibition,  can  be  conceived  more  superb  than  the 
intricate  and  combined  actions  that  must  take  place  during  our  most  com- 
mon movements.  Look  at  a  person  running  or  leaping,  or  watch  the  mo- 
tions of  the  eye.  How  rapid,  how  delicate,  how  complicated,  and  yet  how 
accurate,  are  the  motions  required !  Think  of  the  endurance  of  such  a 
muscle  as  the  heart,  that  can  contract,  with  a  force  equal  to  sixty  pounds, 
seventy-five  times  every  minute,  for  eighty  years  together,  without  being 
weary." 


30,31.]     STRUCTURE  OF  THE  MUSCLES.        81 

cles,  the  voluntary,  which  are  under  the  control  of 
our  will,  and  the  involuntary,  which  are  not.  Thus 
our  limbs  stiffen  or  relax  as  we  please,  but  the  heart 
beats  on  by  day  and  by  night.  The  eyelid,  however, 
is  both  voluntary  and  involuntary,  so  that  while  we 
wink  constantly  without  effort,  we  can,  to  a  certain 
extent,  restrain  or  control  the  motion. 

Structure  of  the  Muscles. — If  we  take  a  piece  of 
lean  beef  and  wash  out  the  red  color,  we  can  easily 
detect  the  fine  fibers  of  which  the  meat  is  composed. 
In  boiling  corned  beef  for  the  table,  the  fibers  often 
separate,  owing  to  the  dissolving  of  the  delicate 
tissue  which  bound  them  together.  By  means  of 
the  microscope,  we  find  that  these  fibers  are  made 
up  of  minute  filaments 
(fibrils),  and  that  each 
fibril  is  composed  of  a  row 
of  small  cells  arranged  like 
a  string  of  beads.  This 
gives  the  muscles  a  pe-  Mm)^  ^  Qf  a 

Culiar       Striped       (striated)    at  <**  en^  tkefllmlla;;  and,  at  the  other, 

'     the  disks,  or  cells,  of  the  fiber, 

appearance.*   (See  p.  2  7  6.) 

The  cells  are  filled  with  a  fluid  or  semi-fluid  mass  of 

living  (protoplasmic)  matter. 

The  binding  of  so  many  threads  into  one  bundle  f 

*  The  involuntary  muscles  consist  generally  of  smooth,  fibrous  tissue, 
and  form  sheets  or  membranes  in  the  walls  of  hollow  organs.  By  their 
contraction  they  change  the  size  of  cavities  which  they  inclose.  Some 
functions,  however,  like  the  action  of  the  heart,  or  the  movements  of  deg- 
lutition (swallowing),  require  the  rapid,  vigorous  contraction,  characteristic 
of  the  voluntary  muscular  tissue.— FLINT. 

t  We  shall  learn  hereafter  how  these  fibers  are  firmly  tied  together  by 
a  mesh  of  fine  connective  tissue  which  dissolves  in  boiling,  as  just  described. 


32 


THE     MUSCLES. 


[31,  32. 


confers  great  strength,  according  to  a  mechanical 
principle  that  we  see  exemplified  in  suspension 
bridges,  where  the  weight  is  sustained,  not  by  bars 
..  16.  of  iron,  but  by  small  wires 

twisted    into    massive    ropes. 

The  Tendons. — The  ends  of 
the  muscles  are  generally  at- 
tached to  the  bone  by  strong, 
flexible,  but  inelastic  tendons.* 
The  muscular  fibers  spring  from 
the  sides  of  the  tendon,  so  that 
more  of  them  can  act  upon  the 
bone  than  if  they  went  directly 
to  it.  Besides,  the  small,  insen- 
sible tendon  can  better  bear  the 
exposure  of  passing  over  a  joint, 
and  be  more  easily  lodged  in 
some  protecting  groove,  than  the 
broad,  sensitive  muscle.  This 
mode  of  attachment  gives  to  the 
limbs  strength,  and  elegance  of 
form.  Thus,  for  example,  if  the 
large  muscles  of  the  arm  ex- 
tended to  the  hand,  they  would 
make  it  bulky  and  clumsy.  The 
tendons,  however,  reach  only  to  the  wrist,  whence 
fine  cords  pass  to  the  fingers  (Fig.  16). 

Here  we  notice  two  other  admirable  arrangements. 
1.   If  the  long  tendons  at  the   wrist  on  contracting 


Tendons  of  the  Hand. 


*  The  tendons  may  be  easily  seen  in  the  leg  of  a  turkey  as  it  comes  on 
our  table ;  so  we  may  study  Physiology  while  we  pick  the  bones. 


THE     TENDONS. 


33 


should  rise,  projections  would  be  made  and  thus  the 
beauty  of  the  slender  joint  be  marred.  To  prevent 
this,  a  stout  band  or  bracelet  of  ligament  holds  them 
down  to  their  place.  2.  In  order  to  allow  the  tendon 
which  moves  the  last  joint  of  the  finger  to  pass 
through,  the  tendon  which  moves  the  second  joint 


FIG.  17. 


The  Muscles  of  the  Sight  Eye.  A,  superior  straight  ;  B,  superior  oblique  passing 
through  a  pulley,  D ;  G,  inferior  oblique ;  H,  external  straight,  and,  back  of  it,  the 
internal  straight  muscle. 

divides  at  its  attachment  to  the  bone  (Fig.  16).  This 
is  the  most  economical  mode  of  packing  the  muscles, 
as  any  other  practicable  arrangement  would  increase 
the  bulk  of  the  slender  finger. 

Since  the  tendon  can  not  always  pull  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  desired  motion,  some  contrivance  is  nec- 
essary to  meet  the  want.  The  tendon  (B)  belonging 
to  one  of  the  muscles  of  the  eye,  for  example,  passes 


THE     MUSCLES. 


[33,  34. 


through  a  ring  of  cartilage,  and  thus  a  rotary  motion 
is  secured. 

PIG.  18. 


\ 


I — * — fr 


I.  II.  III. 

The  three  dosses  of  Levers,  and  also  the  foot  as  a  Lever. 

The  Levers  of  the  Body.*— In  producing  the  mo- 
tions of  the  body,  the  muscles  use  the  bones  as 
levers.  We  see  an  illustration  of^the  first  class  of 

PIG,  19. 


The  hand  as  a  Lever  of  the  third  class. 

levers  in  the  movements  of  the  head.      The  back  or 
front    of    the    head    is  the  weight    to  be  lifted,  the 

*  A  lever  is  a  stiff  bar  resting  on  a  point  of  support,  called  the  fulcrum 
(F),  and  having  connected  with  it  a  weight  (W)  to  be  lifted,  and  a  power  (P) 
to  move  it.  There  are' Three  classes  of  levers  according  to  the  arrangement 
of  the  power,  weight,  and  fulcrum.  In  the  first  class,  the  F  is  between  the 
P  and  W;  in  the  second,  the  W  is  between  the  P  and  F ;  and  in  the  third, 
the  P  is  between  the  W  and  F  (Pig.  18).  A  pump-handle  is  an  example  of 
the  first ;  a  lemon-squeezer,  of  the  second ;  and  a  pair  of  fire-tongs,  of  the 
third.  See  "  Popular  Physics,"  pp.  81-83,  for  a  full  description  of  this  sub- 
ject, and  for  many  illustrations. 


34,35.]       THE  LEVERS  OF  THE  BODY.          35 

backbone  is  the  fulcrum  on  which  the  lever  turns, 
and  the  muscles  at  the  back  or  front  of  the  neck 
exert  the  power  by  which  we  toss  or  bow  the  head. 

When  we  raise  the  body  on  tiptoe,  we  have  an 
instance  of  the  second  class.  Here,  our  toes  resting 
on  the  ground  form  the  fulcrum,  the  muscles  of  the 
calf  (gas-troc-ne -mi-us,  /,  and  so-le'-us,  Fig.  14),  act- 
ing through  the  tendon  of  the  heel,*  are  the  power, 
and  the  weight  is  borne  by  the  ankle-joint. 

An  illustration  of  the  third  class  is  found  in  lift- 
ing the  hand  from  the  elbow.  The  hand  is  the  weight, 
the  elbow  the  fulcrum,  and  the  power  is  applied  by 
the  biceps  muscle  at  its  attachment  to  the  radius. 
(A,  Fig.  19.)  In  this  form  of  the  lever  there  is  a 
great  loss  of  force,  because  it  is  applied  at  such  a 
distance  from  the  weight,  but  there  is  a  gain  of  ve- 
locity, since  the  hand  moves  so  far  by  such  a  slight 
contraction  of  the  muscle.  The  hand  is  required  to 
perform  quick  motions,  and  therefore  this  mode  of 
attachment  is  here  desirable. 

The  nearer  the  power  is  applied  to  the  resistance, 
the  more  easily  the  work  is  done.  In  the  lower  jaw, 
for  example,  the  jaw  is  the  weight,  the  fulcrum  is 
the  hinge-joint  at  the  back,  and  the  muscles  (tem- 
poral, dj  and  the  mas'-se-ter,  e,  Fig.  14)  on  each  side 

*  This  is  called  the  Tendon  of  Achilles  (k,  Pig.  14),  and  is  so  named 
because,  as  the  fable  runs,  when  Achilles  was  an  infant  his  mother  held 
him  by  the  heel  while  she  dipped  him  in  the  River  Styx,  whose  water  had 
the  power  of  rendering  one  invulnerable  to  any  weapon.  His  heel,  not 
being  wet,  was  his  weak  point,  to  which  Paris  directed  the  fatal  arrow.-— 
"This  tendon,"  says  Mapother,  "will  bear  one  thousand  pounds  weight 
before  it  will  break."  The  horse  is  said  to  be  "  hamstrung,"  and  is  ren/ 
dered  useless,  when  the  Tendon  of  Achilles  is  <?ut,  (See  p.  384.) 


36  THE     MUSCLES.  [35,36. 

are  the  power.*  They  act  much  closer  to  the  resist- 
ance than  those  in  the  hand,  since  here  we  desire 
force,  and  there,  speed. 

The  Enlargement  of  the  Bones  at  the  Joints  not 
only  affords    greater    surface   for  the  attachment  of 
FIG  20         ^e   muscles>   as  we  have  seen,   but   also 
enables   them   to   work  to  better   advan- 
tage.    Thus,  in  Fig.  20  it  is  evident  that 
a  muscle  acting  in  the  line  /  b  would  not 
bend    the    lower  limb    so    easily  as  if  it 
were   acting  in  the  line  f  h,  since  in  the 
former  'case  its  force  would  be  about  all 
spent  in  drawing  the  bones  more  closely 
together,  while  in  the  latter  it  would  pull 
more  nearl7  at  a  right  angle.      Thus  the 
tendon  f)    by    passing    over    the    patella, 
which   is   itself   pushed   out   by  the   pro- 
tuberance   b    of    the    thigh-bone,    pulls    at    a    larger 
angle,  f  and  so  the  leg  is  thrown  forward  with  ease 
in  walking  and  with  great  force  in  kicking. 

How  We  Stand  Erect. — The  joints  play  so  easily, 
and  the  center  of  gravity  in  the  body  is  so  far  above 
the  foot,  that  the  skeleton  can  not  of  itself  hold  our 
bodies  upright.  Thus  it  requires  the  action  of  many 

*  We  may  feel  the  contraction  of  the  masse ter  by  placing  our  hand  on 
the  face  when  we  work  the  jaw,  while  the  temporal  can  be  readily  detected 
by  putting  the  fingers  on  the  temple  while  we  are  chewing.  The  tendon  of 
the  muscle  (digastric)— one  of  those  which  open  the  jaw— passes  through  a 
pulley  (c,  Fig.  14)  somewhat  like  the  one  in  the  eye. 

t  The  chief  use  of  the  processes  of  the  spine  (Fig.  6)  and  other  bones 
is,  in  the  same  way,  to  throw  out  the  point  on  which  the  power  acts  as  far 
from  the  fulcrum  as  possible.  The  projections  of  the  ulna  ("  funny  bone  ") 
behind  the  elbow,  and  that  of  the  heel-bone  to  which  the  Tendon  of 
Achilles  is  attached,  are  excellent  illustrations  (Fig.  1), 


36,  37.] 


HOW     WE     WALK. 


37 


FIG.  21. 


muscles  to  maintain  this  position.  The  head  so  rests 
upon  the  spine  as  to  tend  to  fall  in 
front,  but  the  muscles  of  the  neck  steady 
it  in  its  place.*  The  hips  incline  for- 
ward, but  are  held  erect  by  the  strong 
muscles  of  the  back.  The  trunk  is  nicely 
balanced  on  the  head  of  the  thigh-bones. 
The  great  muscles  of  the  thigh  acting 
over  the  knee-pan  tend  to  bend  the  body 
forward,  but  the  muscles  of  the  calf  neu- 
tralize  this  action.  The  ankle,  the  knee, 
and  the  hip  lie  in  nearly  the  same  line, 
and  thus  the  weight  of  the  body  rests 
directly  011  the  key-stone  of  the  arch  of 
the  foot.  So  perfectly  do  these  muscles 
act  that  we  never  think  of  them  until 
science  calls  our  attention  to  the  subject, 
and  yet  to  acquire  the  necessary  skill  to 
use  them  in  our  infancy  needed  patient 
lessons,  much  time,  and  many  hard  knocks. 
How  We  Walk. — Walking  is  as  com- 
plex an  act  as  standing.  It  is  really  a 
perilous  performance,  which  has  become 
safe  only  because  of  constant  practice. 
We  see  how  violent  it  is  when  we  run 
against  a  post  in  the  dark,  and  find  with  what  headlong 

*  In  animals  the  jaws  are  so  heavy,  and  the  place  where  the  head  and 
spine  join  is  so  far  back,  that  there  can  be  no  balance  as  there  is  in  man. 
There  are  therefore  large  muscles  in  their  necks.  We  readily  find  that  we 
have  none  if  we  get  on  "all  fours"  and  try  to  hold  up  the  head.  On  the 
other  hand,  gorillas  and  apes  can  not  stand  erect  like  man,  for  the  reason 
that  their  head,  trunk,  legs,  etc.,  are  not  balanced  by  muscles,  so  as  to  be 
in  line  with  one  another. 


\\ 


Ml  II 


Action  of  the 
Muscles  which 
keep  the  body 
erect. 


38  THE     MUSCLES.  [37,38. 

force  we  were  hurling  ourselves  forward.  Holmes  has 
well  'defined  walking  as  a  perpetual  falling  with  a 
constant  self-recovery.  Standing  on  one  foot,  we  let 
the  body  fall  forward,  while  we  swing  the  other  leg 
ahead  like  a  pendulum.  Planting  that  foot  on  the 
ground,  to  save  the  body  from  falling  farther,  we 
then  swing  the  first  foot  forward  again  to  repeat  the 
same  operation.* 

The  shorter  the  pendulum,  the  more  rapidly  it 
vibrates ;  and  so  short-legged  people  take  quicker 
and  shorter  steps  than  long-legged  ones.f  We  are 
shorter  when  walking  than  when  standing  still, 
because  of  this  falling  forward  to  take  a  step  in  ad- 
vance. I 

In  running,  we  incline  the  body  more,  and  so,  as 
it  were,  fall  faster.  When  we  walk,  one  foot  is  on 
the  ground  all  the  time,  and  there  is  an  instant 
when  both  feet  are  planted  upon  it ;  but  in  running 
there  is  an  interval  of  time  in  each  step  when  both 
feet  are  off  the  ground,  and  the  body  is  wholly  un- 
supported. As  we  step  alternately  with  the  feet,  we 
are  inclined  to  turn  the  body  first  to  one  side  and 


*  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  one  side  of  the  body  tends  to  out-walk  the 
other ;  and  so,  when  a  man  is  lost  in  the  woods,  he  often  goes  in  a  circle, 
and  at  last  comes  round  to  the  spot  whence  he  started. 

t  In  this  respect,  Tom  Thumb  was  to  Magrath,  whose  skeleton,  eight 
and  one  half  feet  high,  is  now  in  the  Dublin  Museum,  what  a  little  fast- 
ticking,  French  mantel-clock  is  to  a  big,  old-fashioned,  upright,  corner 
time-piece. 

$  Women  find  that  a  gown  that  will  swing  clear  of  the  ground  when 
they  are  standing  still,  will  drag  the  street  when  they  are  walking.  The 
length  of  the  step  may  be  increased  by  muscular  effort,  as  when  a  line  of 
soldiers  keep  step  in  spite  of  their  having  legs  of  different  lengths,  Such  i» 
mode  of  walking  is  necessarily  fatiguing.  (See  p.  380.) 


38,39.]  THE     MUSCULAR     SENSE.  39 

then  to  the  other.  This  movement  is  sometimes 
counterbalanced  by  swinging  the  hand  on  the  oppo- 
site side.* 

The  Muscular  Sense. — When  we  lift  an  object, 
we -feel  a  sensation  of  weight,  which  we  can  compare 
with  that  experienced  in  lifting  another  body.f  By 
care  we  may  cultivate  this  sense  so  as  to  form  a 
very  precise  estimate  of  the  weight  of  a  body  by 

*  In  ordinary  walking  the  speed  is  nearly  four  miles  an  hour,  and 
can  be  kept  up  for  a  long  period.  But  exercise  and  a  special  aptitude  for 
it  enable  some  men  to  walk  great  distances  in  a  relatively  short  space  of 
time.  Trained  walkers  have  gone  seventy-five  miles  in  twenty  hours,  and 
walked  the  distance  of  thirty-seven  miles  at  the  rate  of  five  miles  an  hour. 
The  mountaineers  of  the  Alps  are  generally  good  walkers,  and  some  of 
them  are  not  less  remarkable  for  endurance  than  for  speed.  Jacques  Bal- 
mat,  who  was  the  first  to  reach  the  summit  of  Mont  Blanc,  at  sixteen 
years  of  age  could  walk  from  the  hamlet  of  the  Pelerins  to  the  mountain 
of  La  C6te  in  two  hours,— a  distance  which  the  best-trained  travelers  re- 
quired from  five  to  six  hours  to  get  over.  At  the  time  of  his  last  attempt  to 
reach  the  top  of  Mont  Blanc,  this  same  guide,  then  twenty  years  old, 
passed  six  days  and  four  nights  without  sleeping  or  reposing  a  single  mo- 
ment. One  of  his  sons,  ISdouard  Balmat,  left  Paris  to  join  his  regiment  at 
Genoa ;  he  reached  Chamonix  the  fifth  day  at  evening,  having  walked 
three  hundred  and  forty  miles.  After  resting  two  days,  he  set  off  again  for 
Genoa,  where  he  arrived  in  two  days.  Several  years  afterward,  this  same 
man  left  the  baths  at  Loueche  at  two  o'clock  in  the  morning,  and  reached 
Chamonix  at  nine  in  the  evening,  having  walked  a  distance  equal  to  about 
seventy-five  miles  in  nineteen  hours.  In  1844,  an  old  guide  of  De  Saussure, 
eighty  years  old,  left  the  hamlet  of  Prats,  in  the  valley  of  Chamonix,  in 
the  afternoon,  and  reached  the  Grand-Mulcts  at  ten  in  the  evening;  then, 
after  resting  s~me  hours,  he  climbed  the  glacier  to  the  vicinity  of  the 
Grand  Plateau,  which  has  an  altitude  of  about  thirteen  thousand  feet,  and 
then  returned  to  his  village  without  stopping. — Wonders  of  the  Body. 

t  If  a  small  ivory  ball  be  allowed  to  roll  down  the  cheek  toward  the 
lips,  it  will  appear  to  increase  in  weight.  In  general,  the  more  sensitive 
parts  of  the  body  recognize  smaller  differences  in  weight,  and  the  right 
hand  is  more  accurate  than  the  left.  We  are  very  apt,  however,  to  judge 
of  the  weight  of  a  body  from  previous  conceptions.  Thus,  shortly  after  Sir 
Humphrey  Davy  discovered  the  metal  potassium,  he  placed  a  piece  of  it  in 
the  hand  of  Dr.  Pierson,  who  exclaimed :  "  Bless  me  !  How  heavy  it  is  ! " 
Really,  however,  potassium  is  so  light  that  it  will  float  on  water  like 
cork. 


40  THE     MUSCLES.  [39,40. 

balancing  it  in  the  hand.  The  muscular  sense  is 
useful  to  us  in  many  ways.  It  guides  us  in  standing 
or  moving.  We  gratify  it  when  we  walk  erect  and 
with  an  elastic  step,  and  by  dancing,  jumping,  skat- 
ing, and  gymnastic  exercises. 

Necessity  of  Exercise. — The  effect  of  exercise 
upon  a  muscle  is  very  marked.*  By  use  it  grows 
larger,  and  becomes  hard,  compact,  and  darker-col- 
ored; by  disuse  it  decreases  in  size,  and  becomes 
soft,  flabby,  and  pale. 

Violent  exercise,  however,  is  injurious,  since  we 
then  tear  down  faster  than  nature  can  build  up. 
Feats  of  strength  are  not  only  hurtful,  but  danger- 
ous. Often  the  muscles  are  strained  or  ruptured,  and 
blood-vessels  burst  in  the  effort  to  outdo  one's  com- 
panions, f  (See  p.  278.) 

Two  thousand  years  ago,  Isocrates,  the  Greek 
rhetorician,  said :  "  Exercise  for  health,  not  for 
strength."  The  cultivation  of  muscle  for  its  own 
sake  is  a  return  to  barbarism,  while  it  enfeebles-  the 
mind,  and  ultimately  the  body.  The  ancient  gym- 
nasts are  said  to  have  become  prematurely  old,  and 
the  trained  performers  of  our  own  day  soon  suffer 
from  the  strain  they  put  upon  their  muscular  sys- 
tem. Few  men  have  sufficient  vigor  to  become  both 

*  The  greater  size  of  the  "breast  (pectoral  muscle)  of  a  pigeon,  as  com- 
pared with  that  of  a  duck,  shows  how  muscle  increases  with  use.  The 
breast  of  a  chicken  is  white  because  it  is  not  used  for  flight,  and  therefore 
gets  little  blood. 

t  Instances  have  been  known  of  children  falling  dead  from  having 
carried  to  excess  so  pleasant  and  healthful  an  amusement  as  jumping  the 
rope,  and  of  persons  rupturing  the  Tendon  of  Achilles  in  dancing.  The 
competitive  lifting  of  heavy  weights  is  unwise,  sometimes  fatal. 


40,41.]  TIME     FOR     EXERCISE.  41 

athletes  and  scholars.  Exercise  should,  therefore, 
merely  supplement  the  deficiency  of  our  usual  em- 
ployment. A  sedentary  life  needs  daily,  moderate 
exercise,  which  always  stops  short  of  fatigue.  This 
is  a  law  of  health.  (See  p.  280.) 

No  education  is  complete  which  fails  to  provide 
for  the  development  of  the  muscles.  Recesses  should 
be  as  strictly  devoted  to  play  as  study-hours  are  to 
work.  Were  gymnastics  or  calistheni-cs  as  regular  an 
exercise  as  grammar  or  arithmetic,  fewer  pupils 
would  be  compelled  to  leave  school  on  account  of  ill 
health ;  while  spinal  curvatures,  weak  backs,  and 
ungraceful  gaits  would  no  longer  characterize  so 
many  of  our  best  institutions. 

Time  for  Exercise. — We  should  not  exercise  after 
long  abstinence  from  food,  nor  immediately  after  a 
meal,  unless  the  meal  or  the  exercise  be  very  light. 
There  is  an  old-fashioned  prejudice  in  favor  of  exer- 
cise before  breakfast — an  hour  suited  to  the  strong 
and  healthy,  but  entirely  unfitted  to  the  weak  and 
delicate.  On  first  rising  in  the  morning,  the  pulse  is 
low,  the  skin  relaxed,  and  the  system  susceptible  to 
cold.  Feeble  persons,  therefore,  need  to  be  braced 
with  food  before  they  brave  the  out-door  air. 
K(  What  Kind  of  Exercise  to  Take. — For  children, 
games  are  unequaled.  Walking,  the  universal  exer- 
cise,* is  beneficial,  as  it  takes  one  into  the  open  air 

*  The  custom  of  walking,  so  prevalent  in  England,  has  doubtless  much 
to  do  with  the  superior  physique  of  its  people.  It  is  considered  nothing  for 
a  woman  to  take  a  walk  of  eight  or  ten  miles,  and  long  pedestrian  excur- 
sions are  made  to  all  parts  of  .the  country.  The  benefits  which  accrue 
from  such  an  open-air  life  are  sadly  needed  by  the  women  of  our  own 


42  THE     MUSCLES.  [41,42. 

and  sunlight.  Running  is  better,  since  it  employs 
more  muscles,  but  it  must  not  be  pushed  to  excess, 
as  it  taxes  the  heart,  and  may  lead  to  disease  of 
that  organ.  Rowing  is  more  effectual  in  its  general 
development  of  the  system.  Swimming  employs  the 
muscles  of  the  whole  body,  and  is  a  valuable  acquire- 
ment, as  it  may  be  the  means  of  saving  life.  Horse- 
back riding  is  a  fine  accomplishment,  and  refreshes 
both  mind  and '  body.  Gymnastic  or  calisthenic  ex- 
ercises bring  into  play  all  the  muscles  of  the  body, 
and  when  carefully  selected,  and  not  immoderately 
employed,  are  preferable  to  any  other  mode  of  in- 
door exercise.*  (See  p.  280.) 

land.  A  walk  of  half  a  dozen  miles  should  he  a  pleasant  recreation  for  any 
healthy  person. 

*  The  employment  of  the  muscles  in  exercise  not  only  benefits  their 
especial  structure,  but  it  acts  on  the  whole  system.  When  the  muscles  are 
put  in  action,  the  capillary  blood-vessels  with  which  they  are  supplied 
become  more  rapidly  charged  with  blood,  and  active  changes  take  place, 
not  only  in  the  muscles,  but  in  all  the  surrounding  tissues.  The  heart  is 
required  to  supply  more  blood,  and  accordingly  beats  more  rapidly  in  order 
to  meet  the  demand.  A  larger  quantity  of  blood  is  sent  through  the  lungs, 
and  larger  supplies  of  oxygen  are  taken  in  and  carried  to  the  various 
tissues.  The  oxygen,  by  combining  with  the  carbon  of  the  blood  and  the 
tissues,  engenders  a  larger  quantity  of  heat,  which  produces  an  action  on 
the  skin,  in  order  that  the  superfluous  warmth  may  be  disposed  of.  The 
skin  is  thus  exercised,  as  it  were,  and  the  sudoriparous  and  sebaceous 
glands  are  set  at  work.  The  lungs  and  skin  are  brought  into  operation, 
and  the  lungs  throw  off  large  quantities  of  carbonic  acid,  and  the  skin 
large  quantities  of  water,  containing  in  solution  matters  which,  if  retained, 
would  produce  disease  in  the  body.  Wherever  the  blood  is  sent,  changes 
of  a  healthful  character  occur.  The  brain  and  the  rest  of  the  nervous 
system  are  invigorated,  the  stomach  has  its  powers  of  digestion  improved, 
and  the  liver,  pancreas,  and  other  organs  perform  their  functions  with 
more  vigor.  By  want  of  exercise,  the  constituents  of  the  food  which  pass 
into  the  blood  are  not  oxidized,  and  products  which  produce  disease  are 
engendered.  The  introduction  of  fresh  supplies  of  oxygen  induced  by  exer- 
cise oxidizes  these  products,  and  renders  them  harmless.  As  a  rule,  those 
who  exercise  most  in  the  open  air  will  live  the  longest.— LANKESTEK. 


42,43.]  DISEASES,     ETC.  48 

The  Wonders  of  the  Muscles. — The  grace,  ease, 
and  rapidity  with  which  the  muscles  contract  are 
astonishing.  By  practice,  they  acquire  a  facility 
which  we  call  mechanical.  The  voice  may  utter  one 
thousand  five  hundred  letters  in  a  minute,  yet  each 
requires  a  distinct  position  of  the  vocal  organs.  We 
train  the  muscles  of  the  fingers  till  they  glide  over 
the  keys  of  the  piano,  executing  the  most  exquisite 
and  difficult  harmony.  In  writing,  each  letter  is 
formed  by  its  peculiar  motions,  yet  we  make  them 
so  unconsciously  that  a  skillful  penman  will  describe 
beautiful  curves  while  thinking  only  of  the  idea  that 
the  sentence  is  to  express.  The  mind  of  the  violinist 
is  upon  the  music  which  his  right  hand  is  executing, 
while  his  left  determines  the  length  of  the  string 
and  the  character  of  each  note  so  carefully  that  not 
a  false  sound  is  heard,  although  the  variation  of  a 
hair's  breadth  would  cause  a  discord.  In  the  arm  of 
a  blacksmith,  the  biceps  muscle  may  grow  into  the 
solidity  almost  of  a  club ;  the  hand  of  a  prize-fighter 
will  strike  a  blow  like  a  sledge-hammer ;  while  the 
engraver  traces  lines  invisible  to  the  naked  eye,  and 
the  fingers  of  the  blind  acquire  a  delicacy  that 
almost  supplies  the  place  of  the  missing  sense. 

Diseases,  etc. — 1.  St.  Vitus1  Dance  is  a  disease  of 
the  voluntary  muscles,  whereby  they  are  in  frequent, 
irregular,  and  spasmodic  motion  beyond  the  control 
of  the  will.  All  causes  of  excitement,  and  especially 
of  fear,  should  be  avoided,  and  the  general  health  of 
the  patient  invigorated,  as  this  disease  is  closely  con- 
nected with  a  derangement  of  the  nervous  system. 


44  THE     MUSCLES.  [43,44. 

2.  Convulsions  are  an  involuntary  contraction  of 
the   muscles.      Consciousness   is   wanting,    while    the 
limbs  may  be  stiff  or  in   spasmodic  action.      (See   p. 
261.) 

3.  Lockedr-jaw    is   a   disease   in   which   there   are 
spasms  and  a  contraction  of  the  muscles,  usually  be- 
ginning in  the  lower  jaw.      It  is  serious,  often  fatal, 
yet  it  is  sometimes  caused  by  as  trivial  an  injury  as 
the  stroke   of  a  whip-lash,   the  lodgment  of  a  bone 
in  the  throat,  a  fish-hook  in  the  finger,  or  a  tack  in 
the  sole  of  the  foot. 

4.  Go ut  is  characterized  by  an  acute  pain  located 
chiefly    in    the    small    joints    of    the   foot,  especially 
those   of  the  great  toe,  which  become  swollen   and 
extremely  sensitive.      It  is  generally  accompanied  by 
an  excess  of  uric  acid  in  the  blood,  and  a  deposit  of 
urate  of  soda  about  the  affected  joint.    Gout  is  often 
the  result   of  high  living,  and   of  too   much  animal 
food.    It  is  frequently  inherited. 

5.  Rheumatism  affects  mainly  the  connective,  white, 
fibrous  tissue  of  the  larger  joints.    While  gout  is  the 
punishment  of  the  rich  who  live  luxuriously,  rheu- 
matism afflicts  alike  the  poor  and  the  rich.     There 
are  two  common  forms  of  rheumatism — the  inflamma- 
tory or  acute,  and  the  chronic.    The  latter  is  of  long 
continuance ;    the  former  terminates   more   speedily. 
The  acute  form  is  probably  a  disease  of  the  blood, 
which  carries  with  it  some  poisonous  matter  that  is 
deposited  where  the  fibrous  tissue  is  most  abundant. 
The  disease  flies  capriciously  from  one  joint  to  an- 
other,  and    the    pain    caused    by   even   the   slightest 


44,45.]  DISEASES,     ETC.  45 

motion  deprives  the  sufferer  of  the  use  of  the  dis- 
abled part  and  its  muscles.  Its  chief  danger  lies  in 
the  possibility  of  its  affecting  the  vital  organs. 
Chronic  rheumatism — the  result  of  repeated  attacks 
of  the  acute — leads  to  great  suffering,  and  oftentimes 
to  disorganization  of  the  joints  and  an  interference 
with  the  movements  of  the  heart. 

6.  Lumbago  is  an    inflammation    of    the    lumbar 
muscles  and  fascia.*      It  may  be  so  moderate  as  to 
produce  only  a  "lame  back,"  or  so  severe  as  to  dis- 
able, as  in   the   case   of  what  is  popularly  termed  a 
"  crick  in  the  back."    Strong   swimmers  who   some- 
times  drown   without   apparent   cause   are  supposed 
to  be  seized  in  this  way. 

7.  A    Ganglion,    or    what    is    vulgarly    called    a 
"weak"   or  "weeping"  sinew,   is  the  swelling    of    a 
bursa.  f    It  sometimes  becomes  so  distended  by  fluid 
as  to  be  mistaken  for  bone.    If  on  binding  something 
hard  upon  it  for  a  few  days  it  does  not  disappear,  a 
physician  will  remove  the  liquid  by  means  of  a  hyp- 
odermic syringe,  or  perhaps  cause  it  to  be  absorbed 
by  an  external  application  of  iodine. 

*  Lumbago  is  really  a  form  of  myalgia,  a  disease  which  has  its  seat  in 
the  muscles,  and  may  thus  affect  any  part  of  the  body.  Doubtless  much  of 
what  is  commonly  called  "liver"  or  "kidney  complaint"  is  only,  in  one 
case,  myalgia  of  the  chest  or  abdominal  walls  near  the  liver,  or,  in  the 
other,  of  the  back  and  loins  near  the  kidneys.  Chronic  liver  disease  is 
comparatively  rare  in  the  Northern  States,  and  pain  in  the  side  is  not  a 
prominent  symptom ;  while  certain  diseases  of  the  kidneys,  which  are  as 
surely  fatal  as  pulmonary  consumption,  are  not  attended  by  pain  in  the 
back  opposite  these  organs.— WEY. 

t  A  bursa  is  a  small  sack  containing  a  lubricating  fluid  to  prevent 
friction  where  tendons  play  over  hard  surfaces.  There  is  one  shaped  like 
an  hour-glass  on  the  wrist,  just  at  the  edge  of  the  palm.  By  pressing  back 
the  liquid  it  contains,  this  bursa  may  be  clearly  seen. 


46  THE     MUSCLES.  [45,46. 


PRACTICAL     QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  class  of  lever  is  the  foot  when  we  lift  a  weight  on  the  toes? 

2.  Explain  the  movement  of  the  body  backward  and  forward,  when 
resting  upon  the  thigh-bone  as  a  fulcrum. 

3.  What  class  of  lever  do  we  use  when  we  lift  the  foot  while  sitting 
down? 

4.  Explain  the  swing  of  the  arm  from  the  shoulder. 

5.  What  class  of  lever  is  used  in  bending  our  fingers? 

6.  What  class  of  lever  is  our  foot  when  we  tap  the  ground  with  our 
toes? 

7.  What  class  of  lever  do  we  use  when  we  raise  ourselves  from  a 
stooping  position? 

8.  What  class  of  lever  is  the  foot  when  we  walk? 

9.  Why  can  we  raise  a  heavier  weight  with  our  hand  when  lifting 
from  the  elbow  than  from  the  shoulder? 

10.  What  class  of  lever  do  we  employ  when  we  are  hopping,  the  thigh- 
bone being  bent  up  toward  the  body  and  not  used  ? 

11.  Describe  the  motions  of  the  bones  when  we  are  using  a  gimlet. 

12.  Why  do  we  tire  when  we  stand  erect  ? 

13.  Why  does  it  rest  us  to  change  our  work? 

14.  Why  and  when  is  dancing  a  beneficial  exercise  ? 

15.  Why  can  we  exert  greater  force  with  the  back  teeth  than  with  the 
front  ones? 

16.  Why  do  we  lean  forward  when  we  wish  to  rise  from  a  chair? 

17.  Why  does  the  projection  of  the  heel-bone  make  walking  easier? 

18.  Does  a  horse   travel  with   less    fatigue    over   a   flat   than    a   hilly 
country? 

19.  Can  you  move  your  upper  jaw  ? 

20.  Are  people  naturally  right  or  left-handed  ? 

21.  Why  can  so  few  persons  move  their  ears  by  the  muscles? 

22.  Is  the  blacksmith's  right  arm  healthier  than  the  left? 

23.  Boys  often,  though  foolishly,  thrust  a  pin  into  the  flesh  just  above 
the  knee.    Why  is  it  not  painful? 

24.  Will   ten   minutes'  practice   in  a  gymnasium   answer  for   a   day's 
exercise  ? 

25.  Why  would  an  elastic  tendon  be  unfitted  to  transmit  the  motion  of 
a  muscle? 

26.  When  one  is  struck  violently  on  the  head,  why  does  he  instantly 
fall? 

27.  What  is  the  cause  of  the  difference  between  light  and  dark  meat  in 
a  fowl? 


III. 

THE   SKIN. 


A  PBOTECTION  from  the  outer  world,  it  is  our  only  means  of  communi- 
cating with.  it.  Insensible  itself,  it  is  the  organ  of  touch.  It  feels  the 
pressure  of  a  hair,  yet  bears  the  weight  of  the  body.  It  yields  to  every 
motion  of  that  which  it  wraps  and  holds  in  place.  It  hides  from  view  the 
delicate  organs  within,  yet  the  faintest  tint  of  a  thought  shines  through, 
while  the  soul  paints  upon  it,  as  on  a  canvas,  the  richest  and  rarest  of 
colors 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  SKIN. 


1.  THE  STRUCTUBE   OF 
THE  SKIN. 


2.  THE  HAIK  AND  THE 
NAILS. 


•  1.  The  Cutis ;  its  Composition  and  Character. 

2.  The  Cuticle ;  its  Composition  and  Character. 

3.  The  Value  of  the  Cuticle. 

4.  The  Complexion. 

a.  Description. 

b.  Method  of  Growth. 

1.  The  Hair...,  C'  A*  an  In*tru™nt 


2.  The  Nails. 


d.  Indestructibility  of  the 
Hair. 

a.  Uses. 

b.  Method  of  (Growth. 


3.  THE  Mucous  MEM- 
BE  ANE. 


4.  THE  TEETH.  . . 


i*: 

I  3. 


1.  The  Structure. 
Connective  Tissue. 
Fat. 

1.  Number  and  Kinds  of  Teeth. 
1.  The  Two  Sets  ....... 


\  \'  ™*  f»  Teeth' 

I  2.  The  Permanent  Teeth. 

2.  Structure  of  the  Teeth. 

3.  The  Setting  of  the  Tooth  in  the  Jaw. 

4.  The  Decay  of  the  Teeth. 

.5.  The  Preservation  of  the  Teeth. 


1.  The  Two  Kinds. 


5.  THIS  G-LANDS.. 


6.  HYGIENE   


7.  DISEASES.  . . 


1.  Oil  Glands. 

2.  Perspiratory  Glands. 

2.  The  Perspiration. 

3.  The   Absorbing   Power   of  the   Skin.      (See 

Lymphatics.) 

1.  About  Washing  and  Bathing. 

2.  The  Reaction. 

3.  Sea-bathing. 

a.  General  Principles. 

b.  Linen. 

c.  Cotton. 

d.  Woolen. 

e.  Flannel. 

f .  Color  of  Clothing. 

g.  Structure  of  Clothing. 
I  h.  Insufficient  Clothing. 

1.  Erysipelas. 

2.  Salt  Bheum. 

3.  Corns. 

4.  In-growing  Nails. 

5.  Warts. 

6.  Chilblains. 


4.  Clothing. 


THE    SKIN. 

The  Skin  is  a  tough,  thin,  close-fitting  garment 
for  the  protection  of  the  tender  flesh.  Its  perfect 
elasticity  beautifully  adapts  it  to  every  motion  of 
the  body.  We  shall  learn  hereafter  that  it  is  more 
than  a  mere  covering,  being  an  active  organ,  which 
does  its  part  in  the  work  of  keeping  in  order  the 
house  in  which  we  live.  It  oils  itself  to  preserve  its 
smoothness  and  delicacy,  replaces  itself  as  fast  as  it 
wears  out,  and  is  at  once  the  perfection  of  use  and 
beauty. 


I.    STRUCTURE   OF   THE   SKIN. 

Cutis  and  Cuticle. — What  we  commonly  call  the 
skin  —  viz.,  the  part  raised  by  a  blister — is  only  the 
cuticle*  or  covering  of  the  cutis  or  true  skin.  The 
latter  is  full  of  nerves  and  blood-vessels,  while  the 
former  neither  bleeds  f  nor  gives  rise  to  pain,  neither 
suffers  from  heat  nor  feels  the  cold. 


*  C'uticula,  little  skin.  It  is  often  styled  the  scarf-skin,  and  also  the 
epidermis  (epi,  upon;  and  derma,  skin). 

t  We  notice  this  in  shaving ;  for  if  a  razor  goes  below  the  cuticle,  it  is 
followed  by  pain  and  blood.  So  insensible  is  this  outer  layer  that  we  can 
run  a  pin  through  the  thick  mass  at  the  roots  of  the  nails  without  dis- 
comfort. 


50 


THE     SKIN. 


[49,  50. 


The  cuticle  is  composed  of  small,  flat  cells  or 
scales.  These  are  constantly  shed  from  the  surface 
in  the  form  of  scurf,  dandruff,  etc.,  but  are  as  con- 
stantly renewed  from  the  cutis*  below. 

Under  the  microscope,  we  can  see  the  round  cells 
of  the  cuticle,  and  how  they  are  flattened  and  hard- 
ened as  they  are  forced  to  the  surface.  The  immense 

FIG.  22. 


A  represents  a  vertical  section  of  the  Cuticle.  B,  lateral  view  of  the  Cells.  C,  flat 
side  of  scales  like  d,  magnified  250  diameters,  showing  the  nucleated  cells  transformed 
into  broad  scales. 

number  of  these  cells  surpasses  comprehension.  In 
one  square  inch  of  the  cuticle,  counting  only  those 
in  a  single  layer,  there  are  over  a  billion  horny  scales, 
each  complete  in  itself. — HARTJNG. 

Value  of  the  Cuticle. — In  the  palm  of  the  hand, 
the  sole  of  the  foot,  and  other  parts  especially  liable 
to  injury,  the  cuticle  is  very  thick.  This  is  a  most 
admirable  provision  for  their  protection.!  By  use,  it 

*  We  see  how  rapidly  this  change  goes  on  by  noticing  how  soon  a  stain 
of  any  kind  disappears  from  the  skin.  A  snake  throws  off  its  cuticle  entire, 
and  at  regular  intervals. 

t  We  can  hold  the  hand  in  strong  brine  with  impunity,  but  the  smart 
will  quickly  tell  us  when  there  is  even  a  scratch  in  the  skin.  Vaccine 
matter  must  be  inserted  beneath  the  cuticle  to  take  effect.  This  membrane 
doubtless  prevents  many  poisonous  substances  from  entering  the  system. 


50,51.]  THE     COMPLEXION.  51 

becomes  callous  and  horny.  The  boy  who  goes  out 
barefoot  for  the  first  time,  "treading  as  if  on  eggs," 
can  soon  run  where  he  pleases  among  thistles  and 
over  stones.  The  blacksmith  handles  hot  iron  with- 
out pain,  while  the  mason  lays  stones  and  works  in 
lime,  without  scratching  or  corroding  his  flesh. 

The  Complexion.  —  In  the  freshly-made  cells  on 
the  lower  side  of  the  cuticle,  is  a  pigment  composed 
of  tiny  grains.*  In  the  varying  tint  of  this  coloring- 
matter,  lies  the  difference  of  hue  between  the  blonde 
and  the  brunette,  the  European  and  the  African. 
In  the  purest  complexion,  there  is  some  of  this  pig- 
ment, which,  however,  disappears  as  the  fresh,  round, 
soft  cells  next  the  cutis  change  into  the  old,  flat, 
horny  scales  at  the  surface. 

Scars  are  white,  because  this  part  of  the  cuticle 
is  not  restored.  The  sun  has  a  powerful  effect  upon 
the  coloring-matter,  and  so  we  readily  "  tan  "  on  ex- 
posure to  its  rays.  If  the  color  gathers  in  .spots,  it 
forms  freckles,  t 

*  These  grains  are  about  5$jo  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and,  curiously 
enough,  do  not  appear  opaque,  but  transparent  and  nearly  colorless.— 
MARSHALL. 

t  This  action  of  the  sun  on  the  pigment  of  the  skin  is  very  marked. 
Even  among  the  Africans,  the  skin  is  observed  to  lose  its  intense  black 
color  in  those  who  live  for  many  months  in  the  shades  of  the  forest.  It  is 
said  that  Asiatic  and  African  women  confined  within  the  walls  of  the 
harem,  and  thus  secluded  from  the  sun,  are  as  fair  as  Europeans.  Among 
the  Jews  who  have  settled  in  Northern  Europe,  are  many  of  light  com- 
plexion, while  those  who  live  in  India  are  as  dark  as  the  Hindoos.  Intense 
heat  also  increases  this  coloring-matter,  and  thus  a  furnace-man's  skin,  even 
where  protected  by  clothing,  becomes  completely  bronzed.  The  black  pig- 
ment has  been  known  to  disappear  during  severe  illness,  and  a  lighter  color 
to  be  developed  in  its  place.  Among  the  negroes,  are  sometimes  found 
people  who  have  no  complexion,  i.  e.,  there  is  no  coloring-matter  in  their 
skin,  hair,  or  the  iris  of  their  eyes.  These  persons  are  called  Albinos. 


52 


•VIE 


THE     SKIN. 


HAIR   AND    NAILS. 


[51,  52. 


FIG.  23. 


THE  Hair  and  the  Nails  are  modified  forms  of  the 
cuticle. 

The  Hair  is  a  protection  from  heat  and  cold,  and 
shields  the  head  from  blows.  It  is  found  on  nearly 
all  parts  of  the  body,  except  the 
palms  of  the  hands  and  the  soles 
of  the  feet.  The  outside  of  a  hair 
is  hard  and  compact,  and  consists 
of  a  layer  of  colorless  scales,  which 
overlie  one  another  like  the  shingles 
of  a  house  ;  the  interior  is  porous,* 
and  probably  conveys  the  liquids 
by  which  it  is  nourished. 

Each  hair  grows  from  a  tiny 
bulb  (papilla),  which  is  an  elevation 
of  the  cutis  at  the  bottom  of  a  little 
hollow  in  the  skin.  From  the  sur- 
face of  this  bulb,  the  hair  is  pro- 
duced, like  the  cuticle,  by  the  constant  formation  of 
new  cells  at  the  bottom.  When  the  hair  is  pulled 
out,  this  bulb,  if  uninjured,  will  produce  a  new  one  ; 
but,  when  once  destroyed,  it  will  never  grow  again,  f 
The  hair  has  been  known  to  whiten  in  a  single 

*  In  order  to  examine  a  hair,  it  should  be  put  on  the  slide  of  the 
microscope,  and  covered  with  a  thin  glass,  while  a  few  drops  of  alcohol 
are  allowed  to  flow  between  the  cover  and  the  slide.  This  causes  the  air, 
which  fills  the  hair  and  prevents  our  seeing  its  structure,  to  escape. 

t  Hair  grows  at  the  rate  of  about  five  to  seven  inches  in  a  year.  It  is 
said  to  grow  after  death.  This  appearance  is  due  to  the  fact  that  by  the 
shrinking  of  the  skin  the  part  below  the  surface  is  caused  to  project,  which 
is  especially  noticeable  in  the  beard. 


A  Hair,  magnified  600 
diameters.  S,  the  sat  (fol- 
licle); P,  the  papilla,  show- 
ing the  cells  and  the  blood- 
vessels (V). 


52,  53.] 


THE     HAIR. 


53 


FIG.  24. 


night  by  fear,  fright,  or  nervous  excitement, 
the  color  has  once  changed,  it 
can  not  be  restored.*     (See  p. 
285.) 

Wherever  hair  exists,  tiny 
muscles  are  found,  interlaced 
among  the  fibers  of  the  skin. 
These,  when  contracting  under 
the  influence  of  cold  or  elec- 
tricity, pucker  up  the  skin, 
and  cause  the  hair  to  stand  on 
end.f  The  hairs  themselves 
are  destitute  of  feeling.  Nerves, 
however,  are  found  in  the  hol- 
lows in  which  the  hair  is 
rooted,  and  so  one  feels  pain 
when  it  is  pulled.  J  Thus  the 
insensible  hairs  become  won- 
derfully delicate  instruments 
to  convey  an  impression  of  even 
the  slightest  touch. 


When 


A,  a  perspiratory  tube  with  its 
gland;  B,  a  hair  with  a  muscle 
and  two  oil-glands  ;  C,  cuticle  ; 
D,  the  papillae ;  and  E,  fat-cells. 


*  Hair  dyes,  or  so-called  "  hair  restorers,"  are  almost  invariably  delete- 
rious substances,  depending  for  their  coloring  properties  upon  the  action 
of  lead  or  lunar  caustic.  Frequent  instances  of  hair-poisoning  have  oc- 
curred, owing  to  the  common  use  of  such  dangerous  articles.  If  the  growth 
of  the  hair  be  impaired,  the  general  constitution  or  the  skin  needs  treat- 
ment. This  is  the  work  of  a  skillful  physician,  and  not  of  a  patent  remedy. 
Dame  Fashion  has  her  repentant  freaks  as  well  as  her  ruinous  follies,  and 
it  is  a  healthful  sign  that  the  era  of  universal  hair-dyeing  has  been  blotted 
out  from  her  present  calendar,  and  the  gray  hairs  of  age  are  now  honored 
with  the  highest  place  in  "  style  "  as  well  as  in  good  sense  and  cleanliness. 

t  In  horses  and  other  animals  which  are  able  to  shake  the  whole  skin, 
this  muscular  tissue  is  much  more  fully  developed  than  in  man. 

%  These  nerves  are  especially  abundant  in  the  whiskers  of  the  cat, 
which  are  used  as  feelers. 


54  THE     SKIN.  [53,54. 

Next  to  the  teeth  and  bones,  the  hair  is  the  least 
destructible  part  of  the  body,  and  its  color  is  often 
preserved  for  many  years  after  the  other  portions 
have  gone  to  decay.* 

The  Nails  protect  the  ends  of  the  tender  finger, 
and  toe,  and  give  us  power  more  firmly  to  grasp  and 
easily  to  pick  up  any  object  we  may  desire.  They 
enable  us  to  perform  a  hundred  little,  mechanical 
acts  which  else  were  impossible.  At  the  same  time, 
their  delicate  color  and  beautiful  outline  give  a  finish 
of  ornament  to  that  exquisite  instrument,  the  hand. 
The  nail  is  firmly  set  in  a  groove  (matrix)  in  the 
cuticle,  from  which  it  grows  at  the  root  in  length  f 
and  from  beneath  in  thickness.  So  long  as  the  ma- 
trix at  the  root  is  uninjured,  the  nail  will  be  replaced 
after  any  accident.  (See  p.  288.) 


III.    THE   MUCOUS   MEMBRANE. 

Structure. — At  the  edges  of  the  openings  into  the 
body,  the  skin  seems  to  stop  and  give  place  to  a 
tissue  which  is  redder,  more  sensitive,  more  liable  to 
bleed,  and  is  moistened  by  a  fluid,  or  mucus,  as  it  is 
called.  Really,  however,  the  skin  does  not  cease,  but 
passes  into  a  more  delicate  covering  of  the  same 

*  Fine  downy  hairs,  such  as  are  general  upon  the  body,  have  been 
detected  in  the  little  fragments  of  skin  found  beneath  the  heads  of  the 
nails  by  which,  centuries  ago,  certain  robbers  were  fastened  to  the  church 
doors,  as  a  punishment  for  their  sacrilege. 

t  By  making  a  little  mark  on  the  nail  near  the  root  we  can  see,  week 
by  week,  how  rapidly  this  process  goes  on,  and  so  form  some  idea  of  what 
a  multitude  of  cells  must  be  transformed  into  the  horny  matter  of  the  nail. 


5i,  55.]  CONNECTIVE     TISSUE.  55 

general  structure,  viz.,  an  outer,  hard,  bloodless,  in- 
sensible layer,  and  an  inner,  soft,  sanguine,  nervous 
one.*  Thus  every  part  of  the  body  is  wrapped  in  a 
kind  of  double  bag,  made  of  tough  skin  on  the  out- 
side, and  tender  mucous  membrane  on  the  inside. 

Connective  Tissue.— The  cutis  and  the  correspond- 
ing layer  of  the  mucous  membrane  consist  chiefly  of 
a  fibrous  substance  interlaced  like  felt.  It  is  called 
connective  tissue,  because  it  connects  all  the  different 
parts  of  the  body.  It  spreads  from  the  cutis,  invests 
muscles,  bones,  and  cartilages,  and  thence  passes 
into  the  mucous  membrane.  So  thoroughly  does  it 
permeate  the  body,  that,  if  the  other  tissues  were 
destroyed,  it  would  give  a  perfect  model  of  every 
organ,  f  It  can  be  seen  in  a  piece  of  meat  as  a  deli- 
cate substance  lying  between  the  layers  of  muscle, 
where  it  serves  to  bind  together  the  numerous  fibers 
of  which  they  are  composed. 

*  With,  a  dull  knife,  we  can  scrape  from  the  mucous  membrane  which 
lines  the  mouth  some  of  the  cuticle  for  examination  under  the  microscope. 
In  a  similar  way,  we  can  obtain  cuticle  from  the  surface  of  the  body  for 
study  and  comparison. 

t  It  is  curious  to  notice  how  our  body  is  wrapped  in  membrane.  On 
the  outside,  is  the  skin  protecting  from  exterior  injury,  and,  on  the  inside, 
is  the  mucous  membrane  reaching  from  the  lips  to  the  innermost  air-cell 
of  the  lungs.  Every  organ  is  enveloped  in  its  membrane.  Every  bone  has 
its  sheath.  Every  socket  is  lined.  Even  the  separate  fibers  of  muscles 
have  their  covering  tissue.  The  brain  and  the  spinal  cord  are  triply 
wrapped,  while  the  eye  is  only  a  membranous  globe  filled  with  fluid.  These 
membranes  protect  and  support  the  organs  they  enfold,  but,  with  that  wise 
economy  so  characteristic  of  nature  every-where,  they  have  also  an  impor- 
tant function  to  perform.  They  are  the  filters  of  the  body.  Through  their 
pores  pass  alike  the  elements  of  growth,  and  the  returning  products  of 
waste.  On  one  side,  bathed  by  the  blood,  they  choose  from  it  suitable  food 
for  the  organ  they  envelop,  and  many  of  them  in  their  tiny  cells,  by  some 
mysterious  process,  form  new  products, — put  the  finishing  touches,  as  it 
were,  upon  the  material  ere  it  js  deposited  in  the  body, 


56  THE     SKIN.  [55,56. 

Connective  tissue  yields  gelatine  on  boiling,  and 
is  the  part  which  tans  when  hides  are  manufactuerd 
into  leather.  It  is  very  elastic,  so  that  when  you 
remove  your  finger  after  pressing  upon  the  skin,  no 
indentation  is  left.*  It  varies  greatly  in  character, — 
from  the  mucous  membrane,  where  it  is  soft  and 
tender,  to  the  ligaments  and  tendons  which  it  largely 
composes,  where  it  is  strong  and  dense,  f 

Fat  is  deposited  as  an  oil  in  the  cells  J  of  this 
tissue,  just  beneath  the  skin  (Fig.  24),  giving  round- 
ness and  plumpness  to  the  body,  and  acting  as  an 
excellent  non-conductor  for  the  retention  of  heat. 
It  collects  as  pads  in  the  hollows  of  the  bones, 
around  the  joints,  and  between  the  muscles,  causing 
them  to  glide  more  easily  upon  each  other.  As 
marrow,  it  nourishes  the  skeleton,  and  also  dis- 
tributes the  shock  of  any  jar  the  limb  may  sustain. 

It  is  noticeable,  however,  that  fat  does  not  gather 
within  the  cranium,  the  lungs,  or  the  eyelids,  where 
its  accumulation  would  clog  the  organs. 

*  In  dropsy,  this  elasticity  is  lost  by  distension,  and  there  is  a  kind  of 
"pitting,"  as  it  is  called,  produced  by  pressure. 

t  The  leather  made  from  this  tissue  varies  as  greatly,  from  the  tough, 
thick  ox-hide,  to  the  soft,  pliable  kid  and  chamois  skin. 

$  So  tiny  are  these  cells,  that  there  are  over  sixty-five  million  in  a 
cubic  inch  of  fat.  As  they  are  kept  moist,  the  liquid  does  not  ooze  out; 
but,  on  drying,  it  comes  to  the  surface,  and  thus  a  piece  of  fat  feels  oily 
when  exposed  to  the  air.  The  quantity  of  fat  varies  with  the  state  of  nutri- 
tion. In  corpulent  persons,  the  masses  of  fat  beneath  the  skin,  in  the  me- 
sentery, on  the  surface  of  the  heart  and  great  vessels,  between  the  muscles, 
and  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  nerves,  are  considerably  increased.  Con- 
versely, in  the  emaciated  we  sometimes  find  beneath  the  skin  nucleated 
cells,  which  contain  only  one  oil-drop.  Many  masses  of  fat  which  have  an 
important  relation  to  muscular  actions — such  as  the  fat  of  the  orbit  or  the 
cheek— do  not  disappear  in  the  most  emaciated  object.  Even  in  starvation, 
the  fatty  substances  of  the  brain  and  spinal  cord  are  retained,— VALENTIN. 


56,57.]  THE     TEETH.  57 


IV.    THE   TEETH. 

The  Teeth*  are  thirty-two  in  all, — there  being 
eight  in  each  half -jaw,  similarly  shaped  and  arranged. 
In  each  set  of  eight,  the  two  nearest  the  middle  of 
the  jaw  have  wide,  sharp,  chisel-like  edges,  fit  for 
cutting,  and  hence  are  called  incisors.  The  next 
one  corresponds  to  the  great  tearing  or  holding 
tooth  of  the  dog,  and  is  styled  the  canine,  or  eye- 
tooth.  The  next  two  have  broader  crowns,  with  two 
points,  or  cusps,  and  are  hence  termed  the  bicuspids. 
The  remaining  three  are  much  broader,  and,  as  they 
are  used  to  crush  the  food,  are  called  the  grinders, 
or  molars.  The  incisors  and  eye-teeth  have  one 
fang,  or  root;  the  others  have  two  or  three  fangs. 

The  Milk-teeth. — We  are  provided  with  two  sets 
of  teeth.  The  first,  or  milk-teeth,  are  small  and  only 
twenty  in  number.  In  each  half-jaw  there  are  two 
incisors,  one  canine,  and  two  molars.  The  middle 
incisors  are  usually  cut  about  the  age  of  seven 
months,  the  others  at  nine  months,  the  first  molars 
at  twelve  months,  the  canines  at  eighteen  months, 
and  the  remaining  molars  at  two  or  three  years  of 
age.  The  lower  teeth  precede  the  corresponding 

*  Although  the  teeth  are  always  found  in  connection  with  the  skeleton, 
and  are,  therefore,  figured  as  a  part  of  it  (Fig.  1),  yet  they  do  not  properly 
"belong  to  the  bones  of  the  body,  and  are  merely  set  in  the  solid  jaw  to  in- 
sure solidity.  They  are  hard,  and  resemble  bony  matter,  yet  they  are 
neither  true  bone  nor  are  they  formed  in  the  same  manner.  "They  are 
properly  appendages  of  the  mucous  membrane,  and  are  developed  from  it." 
— LEIDY.  "  They  belong  to  the  Tegumentary  System,  which,  speaking  gener- 
ally of  animals'  includes  teeth,  nails,  horns,  scales,  "and  hairs."— MARSHALL. 
They  are  therefore  classed  with  the  mucous  membrane,  as  are  the  nails 
and  hair  with  the  skin. 


58 


THE     SKIN. 


[57,  58. 


FIG.  25. 


upper  ones.      The  time  often  varies,  but    the  order 

seldom. 
~>  The   Permanent   Teeth. — At  six  years,  when  the 

first  set  is  usually  still  perfect,  the  jaws  contain  the 

crowns  of  all  the  second, 
except  the  wisdom-teeth. 
About  this  age,  to  meet 
the  wants  of  the  growing 
body,  the  crowns  of  the 
permanent  set  begin  to 
press  against  the  roots  of 
the  milk-teeth,  which,  be- 


/  o 


N 


The  Teeth  at  the  age  of  'six  and  one  half  .  i          i      -i    i  j_i 
years.     I,  the  incisors;  O,  the  canine;  COming  absorbed,  leave  the 
M,  the  molars ;  the  last  molar  is  the  first  lonQ,pnprq    fppfh    fn  A  rrm  O11  f 
of  the  permanent  teeth  ;  F,  sacs  of  the  ^ 
permanent  incisors ;   C,  of  the  canine ;  while     the     new     Ones     rise 
B,  of  the  bicuspids ;  N,  of  the  second  mo- 
lar;  the  sac  of  the  third  molar  is  empty.  and   OCCUpy   their  places.* 
—MARSHALL. 

The  central  incisors  ap- 
pear at  about  seven  years  of  age ;  the  others  at 
eight ;  the  first  bicuspids  at  nine,  the  second  at  ten  ; 
the  canines  at  eleven  or  twelve ;  the  second  f  molars 
at  twelve  or  thirteen,  and  the  last,  or  wisdom-teeth, 
are  sometimes  delayed  until  the  twenty-second  year, 
or  even  later. 

Structure  of  the  Teeth.  —  The  interior  of  the 
tooth  consists  principally  of  dentine,  a  dense  sub- 
stance resembling  bone.J  The  crown  of  the  tooth, 


*  If  the  milk-teeth,  do  not  promptly  loosen  on  the  appearance  of  the 
second  set,  the  former  should  be  at  once  removed  to  permit  the  permanent 
teeth  to  assume  their  natural  places.      If  any  fail  to  come  in  regularly,  or 
if  they  crowd  the  others,  a  competent  dentist  should  be  consulted, 
t  The  first  molar  appears  much  earlier.    (See  Fig.  25.) 
\  In  the  tusk  of  the  elephant  this  js  known  as.  ivory, 


58,  59.] 


THE  DECAY  OF  THE  TEETH. 


59 


PIG.  26. 


which  is  exposed  to  wear,  is  protected  by  a  sheath 
of   enamel.     This  is  a  hard,  glistening,  white    sub- 
stance, containing  only  two  and 
a  half  per  cent,  of  animal  matter. 
The   fang  is    covered    by  a  thin 
layer  of  true  bone  (cement). 

At  the  center  of  the  tooth  is 
a  cavity  filled  with  a  soft,  red- 
dish-white, pulpy  substance  full 
of  blood-vessels  and  nerves.  This 
pulp  is  very  sensitive,  and  tooth- 
ache is  caused  by  its  irritation. 

The     Fitting    of    the    Tooth 
into  the  Jaw  is  a  most  admirable 
contrivance.     It  is  not  set  like  a 
nail    in    wood,    having    the  fang 
in    contact  with    the    bone ;    but 
the  socket  is  lined  with  a  mem- 
brane which  forms  a  soft  cushion. 
While  this  is  in  a  healthy  state,  it  deadens  the  force 
of    any  shock,  but,  when  inflamed,  it    becomes  the 
seat  of  excruciating  pain. 

The  Decay  of  the  Teeth*  is  commonly  caused 
(1)  by  portions  of  the  food  which  become  entangled 

*  Unlike  the  other  portions  of  the  body,  there  is  no  provision  made  for 
any  change  in  the  permanent  teeth.  That  part,  however,  which  is  thus 
during  life  most  liable  to  change,  after  death  resists  it  the  longest.  In 
deep-sea  dredgings  teeth  are  found  when  all  traces  of  the  frame  to  which 
they  belonged  have  disappeared.  Yet  hard  and  incorruptible  as  tlicsy  seem, 
their  permanence  is  only  relative.  Exposed  to  injury  and  disease,  they 
break  or  decay.  Even  if  they  escape  accident,  they  yet  wear  at  the  crown, 
are  absorbed  at  the  fang,  and,  in  time,  drop  out,  thus  affording  another 
of  the  many  signs  of  the  limitations  Providence  has  fixed  to  the  endurance 
of  our  bodies  and  the  length  of  our  lives. 


Vertical  section  of  a  Molar 
Tooth,  moderately  magnified. 

a,  enamel  of  the  crown,  the 
lines  of  which  indicate  the 
arrangement  of  its  columns ; 

b,  dentine ;   c,  cement ;  d, 


60  THE     SKIN.  [50,60. 

between  them,  and,  on  account  of  the  heat  and 
moisture,  quickly  decompose ;  and  (2)  by  the  saliva, 
as  it  evaporates,  leaving  on  the  teeth  a  sediment, 
which  we  call  tartar.  This  collects  organic  matter 
that  rapidly  changes,  and  also  affords  a  soil  in  which 
a  sort  of  fungus  speedily  springs  up.  From  both 
these  causes,  the  breath  becomes  offensive,  and  the 
teeth  are  injured. 

Preservation  of  the  Teeth. — Children  should  early 
be  taught  to  brush  their  teeth  at  least  every  morn- 
ing with  tepid  water,  and  twice  a  week  with  white 
castile  soap  and  powdered  orris-root,  or  with  some 
dentifrice  recommended  by  a  responsible  dentist. 
They  should  also  be  instructed  to  remove  the  par- 
ticles of  food  from  between  the  teeth,  after  each 
meal,  by  means  of  a  quill  or  wooden  tooth-pick. 

The  enamel  once  injured  is  never  restored,  and  the 
whole  interior  of  the  tooth  is  exposed  to  decay.  We 
should  not,  therefore,  crack  hard  nuts,  bite  thread, 
or  use  metal  tooth-picks,  gritty  tooth-powders,  or  any 
acid  which  "sets  the  teeth  on  edge,"  i.  e.,  that  acts 
upon  the  enamel.  It  is  well  also  to  have  the  teeth 
examined  yearly  by  a  dentist,  that  any  small  orifice 
may  be  filled,  and  further  decay  prevented. 


V.    THE   GLANDS   OF   THE   SKIN. 

I.  The  Oil  Glands  are  clusters  of  tiny  sacs  which 
secrete  an  oil  that  flows  along  the  duct  to  the  root 
of  the  hair,  and  thence  oozes  out  on  the  cuticle  (Fig. 


60,61.]  THE     PEESPIRATORY     GLANDS.  61 

24).*  This  is  nature's  efficient  hair- dressing,  and 
also  keeps  the  skin  soft  and  flexible.  These  glands 
are  not  usually  found  where  there  is  no  hair,  as  on 
the  palm  of  the  hand,  and  hence  at  those  points 
only  can  water  readily  soak  through  the  skin  into 
the  body.  They  are  of  considerable  size  on  the  face, 
especially  about  the  nose.  When  obstructed,  their 
contents  become  hard  and  dark-colored,  and  are  vul- 
garly called  "  worms."  f 

\/  II.  The  Perspiratory  Glands  are  fine  tubes  about 
^-Q  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
in  length,  which  run  through  the  cutis,  and  then 
coil  up  in  little  balls  (Fig.  24).  They  are  found  in 
all  parts  of  the  body,  and  in  almost  incredible  num- 
bers. In  the  palm  of  the  hand,  there  are  about  two 
thousand  eight  hundred  in  a  single  square  inch. 
On  the  back  of  the  neck  and  trunk,  where  they  are 
fewest,  there  are  yet  four  hundred  to  the  square 
inch.  The  total  number  on  the  body  of  an  adult  is 
estimated  at  about  two  and  a  half  million.  If  they 
were  laid  end  to  end,  they  would  extend  nearly  ten 
miles.t  The  mouths  of  these  glands — "  pores,"  as  we 
commonly  call  them  —  may  be  seen  with  a  pocket 

*  This  secretion  is  said  to  vary  in  different  persons,  and  on  that  account 
the  dog  is  enabled  to  trace  his  master  "by  the  scent. 

t  Though  they  are  not  alive,  yet,  under  the  microscope,  they  are  some- 
times found  to  contain  a  curious  parasite,  called  the  pimple -mite,  which  is 
supposed  to  consume  the  superabundant  secretion. 

$  The  current  statement,  that  they  would  extend  twenty-eight  miles, 
is  undoubtedly  an  exaggeration.  Krause  estimates  the  total  number  at 
2,381,248,  and  the  length  of  each  coil,  when  unraveled,  at  ^  of  an  inch, 
which  would  make  the  total  length  much  less  than  even  the  statement  in 
the  text.  Seguin  states  that  the  proportion  of  impurities  thrown  off  by  the 
skin  and  the  lungs,  is  eleven  to  seven. 


62  THE     SKIN.  [61,62. 

lens  along  the  fine  ridges  which  cover  the  palm  of 
the  hand. 

The  Perspiration. — From  these  openings,  there 
constantly  passes  a  vapor,  forming  what  we  call  the 
insensible  perspiration.  Exercise  or  heat  causes  it 
to  flow  more  freely,  when  it  condenses  on  the  sur- 
face in  drops.  The  perspiration  consists  of  about 
ninety-nine  parts  water,  and  one  part  solid  matter. 
The  amount  varies  greatly,  but  on  the  average  is, 
for  an  adult,  not  far  from  two  pounds  per  day.  Any 
suppression  of  this  constant  drainage  will  lead  to 
disagreeable  and  even  dangerous  results.  If  it  be 
entirely  and  permanently  .checked,  death  will  in- 
evitably ensue.* 

The  Absorbing  Power  of  the  Skin. — We  have 
already  described  two  uses  of  the  skin :  ( 1 )  Its  pro- 
tective, (2)  its  exhaling,  and  now  we  come  to  (3)  its 
absorbing  power.  This  is  not  so  noticeable  as  the 
others,  and  yet  it  can  be  illustrated.  Persons  fre- 
quently poison  their  hands  with  the  common  wood- 
ivy.  Contagious  diseases  are  taken  by  touching  a 
patient,  or  even  his  clothing,  especially  if  there  be  a 
crack  in  the  cuticle,  f  Painters  absorb  so  much  lead 

*  Once,  on  an  occasion  of  great  solemnity  at  Rome,  a  child  was,  it  is 
said,  completely  covered  with  gold-leaf,  closely  applied  to  the  skin,  so  as 
to  represent,  according  to  the  idea  of  that  age,  the  golden  glory  of  an  angel 
or  seraph.  In  a  few  hours,  after  contributing  to  this  pageant,  the  child 
died;  the  cause  being  suffocation,  from  stopping  the  exhalation  of  the 
skin;  although,  in  the  ignorance  of  the  common  people  of  those  days,  the 
death  was  attributed  to  the  anger  of  the  Deity,  and  looked  upon  as  a  cir- 
cumstance of  evil  omen. 

t  If  one  is  called  upon  to  handle  a  dead  body,  it  is  well,  especially  if 
the  person  has  died  of  a  contagious  disease,  to  rub  the  hand  with  lard  or 
olive-oil.  Poisonous  matter  has  been  fatally  absorbed  through  the  breaking 


62,63.]  HYGIENE.  63 

through  the  pores  of  their  hands  that  they  are 
attacked  with  colic.*  Snuff  and  lard  are  frequently 
rubbed  on  the  chest  of  a  child  suffering  with  the 
croup,  to  produce  vomiting.  It  is  said  that  seamen 
in  want  of  water  drench  their  clothing  in  salt  spray, 
when  the  skin  will  absorb  enough  moisture  to  quench 
thirst  (see  Lymphatic  System). 

By  carefully  conducted  experiments,  it  has  been 
found  that  the  skin  acts  in  the  same  way  as  the 
lungs  (see  Respiration)  in  absorbing  oxygen  from 
the  air,  and  giving  off  carbonic  acid  to  a  small 
but  appreciable  amount.  Indeed,  the  skin  has  not 
inaptly  been  styled  the  third  lung.  Hence,  the  im- 
portance of  absolute  cleanliness  and  a  frequent  ab- 
lution of  the  entire  body. 


VI.    HYGIENE. 

Hints  about  Washing  and  Bathing.— The  moment 
of  rising  from  bed  is  the  proper  time  for  the  full 
wash  or  bath  with  which  one  should  commence  the 
day.  The  body  is  then  warm,  and  can  endure  mod- 
erately cold  water  better  than  at  any  other  time ; 

of  the  cuticle  by  a  hang-nail,  or  a  simple  scratch.  There  is  a  story  that 
Buonaparte,  when  a  lieutenant  of  artillery,  in  the  heat  of  battle,  seized 
the  rammer  and  worked  the  gun  of  an  artillery-man  who  had  fallen. 
From  the  wood  which  the  soldier  had  used,  Buonaparte  absorbed  a  poison 
that  gave  him  a  skin-disease,  by  which  he  was  annoyed  the  remainder  of 
his  life. 

*  Cosmetics,  hair-dyes,  etc.,  are  exceedingly  injurious,  not  only  because 
they  tend  to  fill  the  pores  of  the  skin,  but  because  they  often  contain  poi- 
sonous matters  that  may  be  absorbed  into  the  system,  especially  if  they 
are  in  a  solution. 


04  THESKIN.  [63. 

it  is  relaxed,  and  needs  bracing ;  and  the  nerves, 
deadened  by  the  night's  repose,  require  a  gentle 
stimulus.  If  the  system  be  strong  enough  to  resist 
the  shock,  cold  water  is  the  most  invigorating ;  if 
not,  a  tepid  bath  will  answer.* 

Before  dressing,  the  whole  body  should  be  thor- 
oughly rubbed  with  a  coarse  towel  or  flesh-brush. 
At  first,  the  friction  may  be  unpleasant,  but  this 
sensitiveness  will  soon  be  overcome,  and  the  keenest 
pleasure  be  felt  in  the  lively  glow  which  follows. 
A  bath  should  not  be  taken  just  before  nor  imme- 
diately after  a  meal,  as  it  will  interfere  with  the 
digestion  of  the  food.  Soap  should  be  employed 
occasionally,  but  its  frequent  use  tends  to  make  the 
.skin  dry  and  hard. 

Reaction. — After  taking  a  cold  bath,  there  should 
be  a  prompt  reaction.  When  the  surface  is  chilled 
by  cold  water,  the  blood  sets  to  the  heart  and  other 
vital  organs,  exciting  them  to  more  vigorous  action, 

*  Many  persons  have  not  the  conveniences  for  a  bath.  To  them,  the 
following  plan,  which  the  author  has  daily  employed  for  years,  is  com- 
mended. The  necessities  are :  a  basin  full  of  soft  water,  a  mild  soap,  a 
large  sponge  or  a  piece  of  flannel,  and  two  towels  — one  soft,  the  other 
rough.  The  temperature  of  the  water  should  vary  with  the  season  of  the 
year  — cold  in  summer  and  tepid  in  winter.  Rub  quickly  the  entire  body 
with  the  wet  sponge  or  flannel.  (If  more  agreeable,  wash  and  wipe  only 
a  part  at  a  time,  protecting  the  rest  in  cold  weather  with  portions  of 
clothing.)  Dry  the  skin  gently  with  a  soft  towel,  and  when  quite  dry, 
with  the  rough  towel  or  flesh-brush  rub  the  body  briskly  four  or  five 
minutes  till  the  skin  is  all  aglow.  The  chest  and  abdomen  need  the 
principal  rubbing.  The  roughness  of  the  towel  should  be  accommodated 
to  the  condition  of  the  skin.  Enough  friction,  however,  must  be  given  to 
produce  at  least  a  gentle  warmth,  indicative  of  the  reaction  necessary  to 
prevent  subsequent  chill  or  languor.  An  invalid  will  find  it  exceedingly 
beneficial  if  a  stout,  vigorous  person  produce  the  reaction  by  rubbing  with 
the  hands. 


63,64.]  SEA-BATHING.  65 

and  then,  being  thrown  back  to  the  surface,  it  red- 
dens, warms,  and  stimulates  the  skin  to  an  un- 
wonted degree.  This  is  called  the  reaction,  and  in 
it  lies  the  invigorating  influence  of  the  cold  bath. 
When,  on  the  contrary,  the  skin  is  heated  by  a  hot 
bath,  the  blood  is  drawn  to  the  surface,  less  blood 
goes  to  the  heart,  the  circulation  decreases,  and  lan- 
guor ensues.  A  dash  of  cold  water  is  both  neces- 
sary and  refreshing  at  the  close  of  a  hot  bath.* 

If,  after  a  cold  bath,  there  be  felt  no  glow  of 
warmth,  but  only  a  chilliness  and  depression,  we  are 
thereby  warned  that  either  proper  means  were  not 
taken  to  bring  on  this  reaction,  or  that  the  circula- 
tion is  not  vigorous  enough  to  make  such  a  bath 
beneficial.  The  general  effect  of  a  cool  bath  is  ex- 
hilarating, and  that  of  a  warm  one  depressing,  f 
Hence  the  latter  should  not  ordinarily  be  taken 
oftener  than  once  a  week,  while  the  former  may  be 
enjoyed  daily.  (See  p.  289.) 

Sea-bathing  is  exceedingly  stimulating,  on  account 
of  the  action  of  the  salt  and  the  exciting  surround- 

*  The  Russians  are  very  fond  of  vapor-baths,  taken  in  the  following 
manner.  A  large  room  is  heated  by  stoves.  Red-hot  stones  being  brought 
in,  water  is  thrown  upon  them,  filling  the  room  with  steam.  The  bathers 
sit  on  benches  until  they  perspire  profusely,  when  they  are  rubbed  with 
soap-suds  and  dashed  with  cold  water.  Sometimes,  while  in  this  state  of 
excessive  perspiration,  they  run  out-of-doors  and  leap  into  snow-banks. 

t  The  sudden  plunge  into  a  cold  bath  is  good  for  the  strong  and  healthy, 
but  too  severe  for  the  delicate.  One  should  always  wet  first  the  face,  neck, 
and  chest.  It  is  extremely  injurious  to  stand  in  a  bath  with  only  the  feet 
and  the  lower  limbs  covered  by  the  water,  for  the  blood  is  thus  sent  from 
the  extremities  to  the  heart  and  internal  organs,  and  they  beconje  so 
burdened  that  reaction  may  be  out  of  their  power.  A  brisk  walk,  or  a 
thorough  rubbing  of  the  skin,  before  a  cold  bath  or  swim,  adds  greatly  to 
its  value  and  pleasure. 


66  THE     SKIK.  [64,65. 

ings.  Twenty  minutes  is  the  utmost  limit  for  bath- 
ing or  swimming  in  salt  or  fresh  water.  A  chilly 
sensation  should  be  the  signal  for  instant  removal. 
It  is  better  to  leave  while  the  glow  and  buoyancy 
which  follow  the  first  plunge  are  still  felt.  Gentle 
exercise  after  a  bath  is  beneficial. 

Clothing  in  winter,  to  keep  us  warm,  should  repel 
the  external  cold  and  retain  the  heat  of  the  body. 
In  summer,  to  keep  us  cool,  it  should  not  absorb  the 
rays  of  the  sun,  and  should  permit  the  passage  of 
the  heat  of  the  body.  At  all  seasons,  it  should  be 
porous,  to  give  ready  escape  to  the  perspiration,  and 
a  free  admission  of  air  to  the  skin.  We  can  readily 
apply  these  essential  conditions  to  the  different 
kinds  of  clothing. 

Linen  is  soft  to  the  touch,  and  is  a  good  con- 
ductor of  heat.  Hence  it  is  pleasant  for  summer 
wear,  but,  being  apt  to  chill  the  surface  too  rapidly, 
it  should  not' be  worn  next  the  skin. 

Cotton  is  a  poorer  conductor  of  heat  and  absorber 
of  moisture,  and  is  therefore  warmer  than  linen.  It 
is  sufficiently  cool  for  summer  wear,  and  affords 
better  protection  against  sudden  changes. 

Woolen  absorbs  moisture  slowly,  and  contains 
much  air  in  its  pores.  It  is  therefore  a  poor  con- 
ductor of  heat,  and  guards  the  wearer  against  the 
vicissitudes  of  our  climate. 

The  outer  clothing  may  be  adapted  largely  to 
ornament,  and  may  be  varied  to  suit  our  fancy 
and  the  requirements  of  society.  The  under-clothing 
should  always  be  sufficient  to  keep  us  warm.  Woolen 


65,66.]  CLOTHING.  67 

should  be  worn  next  the  skin  at  all  times ;  light  gos- 
samer garments  in  the  heat  of  summer,  and  warm, 
porous  flannels  in  mid-winter. 

Light-colored  clothing  is  not  only  cooler  in  sum- 
mer, but  warmer  in  winter.  As  the  warmth  of 
clothing  depends  greatly  on  the  amount  of  air  con- 
tained in  its  fibers,  fine,  loose,  porous  cloth  with 
a  plenty  of  nap  is  best  for  winter  wear.  Firm  and 
heavy  goods  are  not  necessarily  the  warmest.  Furs 
are  the  perfection  of  winter  clothing,  since  they 
combine  warmth  with  lightness.  Two  light  woolen 
garments  are  warmer  than  one  heavy  one,  as  there 
is  between  them  a  layer  of  non-conducting  air. 

All  the  body  except  the  head  should  be  equally 
protected  by  clothing.  Whatever  fashion  may  dic- 
tate, no  part  covered  to-day  can  be  uncovered  to- 
night or  to-morrow,  except  at  the  peril  of  health.  It 
is  a  most  barbarous  and  cruel  custom  to  leave  the 
limbs  of  little  children  unprotected,  when  adults 
would  shiver  at  the  very  thought  of  exposure. 
Equally  so  is  it  for  children  to  be  thinly  clad  for  the 
purpose  of  hardening  them.  To  go  shivering  with 
cold  is  not  the  way  to  increase  one's  power  of  en- 
durance. The  system  is  made  more  vigorous  by 
exercise  and  food ;  not  by  exposure.  In  winter, 
we  should  wear  warm  shoes  with  thick  soles,  and 
rubbers  when  it  is  damp.  At  night,  and  after  exer- 
cise, we  require  extra  clothing.  (See  p.  295.) 

Diseases,  etc. — 1.  Erysipelas  is  an  inflammation 
(see  Inflammation)  of  the  skin,  and  often  begins  in  a 
spot  not  larger  than  a  pin-head,  which  spreads  with 


68  THE     SKIN.  [66,67. 

great  rapidity.  It  is  very  commonly  checked  by  the 
application  of  a  solution  of  iodine.  The  burning  and 
contracting  sensation  may  be  relieved  by  cloths 
wrung  out  of  hot  water. 

2.  Eczema  (Salt  Rheum,  etc.)  is  of  constitutional 
origin.  It  is  characterized  by  an  itching,  burning, 
reddened  eruption,  in  which  a  serous  discharge  ex- 
udes and  dries  into  crusts  or  scales.  The  skin 
thickens  in  patches,  and  painful  fissures  are  formed, 
which  are  irritated  by  exposure  to  air  or  water.  Ec- 
zema denotes  debility.  It  occurs  in  various  forms, 
and,  like  erysipelas,  should  be  treated  by  a  physician. 
*4  3.  Corns  are  thickened  cuticle,  caused  by  pressure 
or  friction.  They  most  frequently  occur  on  the  feet ; 
but  are  produced  on  the  shoemaker's  knee  by  con- 
stant hammering,  and  on  the  soldier's  shoulder  by 
the  rubbing  of  his  musket.  This  hard  portion  irri- 
tates the  sensitive  cutis  beneath,  and  so  causes  pain. 
A  corn  will  soften  in  hot  water,  when  it  may  be 
pared  with  a  sharp  knife.  If  the  cause  be  removed, 
the  corn  will  not  return. 

4:.  In-growing  Nails  are  caused  by  pressure,  which 
forces  the  edge  of  the  toe-nail  into  the  flesh.  They 
may  be  cured  by  carefully  cutting  away  the  part 
which  has  mal-grown,  and  then  scraping  the  back  of 
the  nail  till  it  is  thin,  making  a  small  incision  in  the 
center,  at  the  top.  The  two  portions,  uniting,  will 
draw  away  the  nail  from  the  flesh  at  the  edge.  In- 
growing nails  may  be  prevented  by  wearing  broad- 
toed  shoes. 

5.   Warts  are  overgrown  papillae   (Fig.  24),      They 


67-69.]  PRACTICAL     QUESTIONS.  69 

may  generally  be  removed  by  the  application  of 
glacial  acetic  acid,  or  a  drop  of  nitric  acid,  repeated 
until  the  entire  structure  is  softened.  Care  must  be 
taken  to  keep  the  acid  from  touching  the  neighbor- 
ing skin.  The  capricious  character  of  warts  has 
given  rise  to  'the  popular  delusion  concerning  the 
influence  of  charms  upon  them. 

6.  Chilblain  is  a  local  inflammation  affecting 
generally  the  feet,  the  hands,  or  the  lobes  of  the 
ear.  Liability  to  it  usually  passes  away  with  man- 
hood. It  is  not  caused  by  "freezing  the  feet,"  as 
many  suppose,  though  attacks  are  brought  on,  or 
aggravated,  by  exposure  to  cold,  followed  by  sudden 
warming.  Chilblain  is  subject  to  daily  congestion 
(see  Congestion),  manifested  by  itching,  soreness,  etc., 
commonly  occurring  at  night.  The  best  preventive 
is  a  uniform  temperature,  and  careful  protection 
against  the  cold  by  warm  clothing,  especially  for  the 
feet. 


PRACTICAL     QUESTIONS. 

1.  If  a  hair  "be  plucked  out,  will  another  grow  in  its  place? 

2.  What  causes  the  hair  to  "  stand  on  end "  when  we  are  frightened  ? 

3.  Why  is  the  skin  roughened  by  riding  in  the  cold? 

4.  Why  is  the  back  of  a  washer- woman's  hand  less  water-soaked  than 
the  palm? 

5.  What  would  be  the  length  of  the  perspiratory  tubes  in  a  single 
square  inch  of  the  palm,  if  placed  end  to  end? 

6.  What  colored  clothing  is  best  adapted  to  all  seasons? 

7.  What  is  the  effect  of  paint  and  powder  on  the  skin? 

8.  Is  water-proof  clothing  healthful  for  constant  wear? 

9.  Why  are  rubbers  cold  to  the  feet  ? 

10.  Why  does  the  heat  seem  oppressive  when  the  air  is  moist? 

11.  Why  is  friction  of  the  skin  invigorating  after  a  cold  bath? 

12.  Why  does  the  hair  of  domestic  animals  become  roughened  in  winter? 


70  THESKIN.  [69,  70. 

13.  Why  do  fowls  spread  their  feathers  "before  they  perch  for  the  night  ? 

14.  How  can  an  extensive  burn  produce  congestion  of  the  lungs? 

15.  Why  do  we  perspire  so  profusely  after  drinking  cold  water? 

16.  How  can  we  best  prevent  skin-diseases,  colds,  and  rheumatism  ? 

17.  What  causes  the  difference  between  the  hard  hand  of  a  blacksmith 
and  the  soft  hand  of  a  woman? 

18.  Why  should  a  painter  avoid  getting  paint  on  the  palm  of  his  hand? 

19.  Why  should  we  not  use  the  soap  or  the  soiled  towel  at  a  hotel? 

20.  Which  teeth  cut  like  a  pair  of  scissors? 

21.  Which  teeth  cut  like  a  chisel? 

22.  Which  should  be  clothed  the  warmer,  a  merchant  or  a  farmer? 

23.  Why  should  we  not  crack  nuts  with  our  teeth? 

24.  Do  the  edges  of  the  upper  and  the  lower  teeth  meet? 

25.  When  fatigued,  would  you  take  a  cold  bath  ? 

26.  Why  is  the  outer  surface  of  a  kid  glove  finer  than  the  inner? 

27.  Why  will  a  brunette  endure  the  sun's  rays  better  than  a  blonde  ? 

28.  Does  patent  leather  form  a  healthful  covering  for  the  feet? 

29.  Why  are  men  more  frequently  bald  than  women? 

30.  On  what  part  of  the  head  does  baldness  commonly  occur?     Why? 

31.  What  does  the  combination  in  our  teeth  of  canines  and  grinders 
suggest  as  to  the  character  of  our  food  ? 

32.  Is  a  staid,  formal  promenade  suitable  exercise? 

33.  Is  there  any  danger  in  changing  the  warm  clothing  of  our  daily 
wear  for  the  thin  one  of  a  party? 

34.  Should  we  retain  our  overcoat,  shawl,  or  furs  when  we  come  into  a 
warm  room? 

35.  Which  should  bathe  the  oftener,  students  or  out-door  laborers? 

36.  Is  abundant  perspiration  injurious? 

37.  How  often  should  the  ablution  of  the  entire  body  be  performed? 

38.  Why  is  cold  water  better  than  warm,  for  our  daily  ablution? 

39.  Why  should  our  clothing  always  fit  loosely? 

40.  Why  should  we  take  special  pains  to  avoid  clothing  that  is  colored 
by  poisonous  dye-stuffs?     (See  p.  296.) 

41.  What  general  principles  should  guide  us  as  to  the  length  and  fre- 
quency of  baths  in  salt  or  fresh  water? 

42.  What  is  the  beneficial  effect  of  exercise  upon  the  functions  of  the 
skin? 

43.  How  can  we  best  show  our  admiration  and  respect  for  the  human 
body? 

44.  Why  is  the  scar  of  a  severe  wound  upon  a  negro  sometimes  white? 


IV. 

RESPIRATION  AND  THE  VOICE 


"THE  smooth  soft  air  with,  pulse-like  waves 
Flows  murmuring  through  its  hidden  caves, 
Whose  streams  of  brightening  purple  rush, 
Fired  with  a  new  and  livelier  blush; 
While  all  their  burden  of  decay 
The  ebbing  current  steals  away." 


ANALYSIS  OF  RESPIRATION  AND  THE  VOICE. 


1.  ORGANS  OF  VOICE... 


2.  ORGANS    or    RESPIRA- 
TION. 


3.  How  WE  BREATHE 


4.  MODIFICATIONS  OF  THE 
BREATH. 


'1.  The  Larynx. 

2.  The  Vocal  Cords. 

3.  Different  Tones  of  Voice. 

4.  Speech. 

>5.  Formation  of  Vocal  Sounds. 

1.  The  Trachea. 

2.  The  Bronchial  Tubes. 

3.  The  Cells. 

4.  The  Lung-wrapping. 

5.  The  Cilia. 

1.  Inspiration. 

2.  Expiration. 

f  1.  Sighing. 

2.  Coughing. 

3.  Sneezing. 

4.  Snoring. 

5.  Laughing,  and  Crying. 

6.  Hiccough. 

7.  Yawning. 


5.  CAPACITY  OF  THE  LUNGS. 


6.  HYGIENE 


1.  The  Need  of  Air. 

2.  Action  of  Air  in  the  Lungs. 

3.  Tests  of  the  Breath. 

4.  Analysis  of  Expired  Air. 

5.  Effect  of  He-breathed  Air. 

The    Sources 


6.  Concerning  the  Need 
of  Ventilation. 


a.  TUB    (sources    of 

Impurity, 

b.  The  Sick-room. 

c.  The  Sitting-room. 

d.  The  Bed-room. 

e.  The  Church. 

f.  The  School-room. 

g.  How    we    should 

Ventilate. 


7.  THE  WONDERS  OF  RESPIRATION. 


C 1.  Constriction  of  the  Lungs. 

2.  Bronchitis. 

3.  Pleurisy. 

4.  Pneumonia. 

5.  Consumption. 

6.  Asphyxia. 

7.  Diphtheria. 

8.  Croup. 

^  9.  Stammering. 


RESPIRATION   AND   THE   VOICE. 

THE  Organs  of  Respiration  and  the  Voice  are  the 
larynx,  the  trachea,  and  the  lungs. 

Description  of  the  Organs  of  the  Voice. — 1.  The 
Larynx. — In  the  neck,  is  a  prominence  sometimes 
called  Adam's  apple.  It  is  the  front  of  the  larynx. 
This  is  a  small  triangular,  cartilaginous  box,  placed 
just  below  the  root  of  the  tongue,  and  at  the  top  of 
the  windpipe.  The  opening  into  it  from  the  throat 
is  called  the  glottis;  and  the  cover,  the  epiglottis 
(epi,  upon  ;  glotta,  the  tongue).  The  latter  is  a  spoon- 
shaped  lid,  which  opens  when  we  breathe,  but,  by  a 
nice  arrangement,  shuts  when  we  try  to  swallow, 
and  so  lets  our  food  slip  over  it  into  the  oesophagus 
(e-soP-a-gus),  the  tube  leading  from  the  pharynx  to 
the  stomach  (Fig.  27). 

If  we  laugh  or  talk  when  we  swallow,  our  food  is 
apt  to  "go  the  wrong  way,"  i.  e.,  little  particles  pass 
into  the  larynx,  and  the  tickling  sensation  which 
they  produce  forces  us  to  cough  in  order  to  expel 
the  intruders. 

2.  The  Vocal  Cords. — On  each  side  of  the  glottis 
are  the  so-called  vocal  cords.  They  are  not  really 
cords,  but  merely  elastic  membranes  projecting  from 


RESPIKATION     AND     THE     VOICE. 


[74,  75. 


the  sides  of  the  box  across  the  opening.*  When  not 
in  use,  they  spread  apart  and  leave  a  V-shaped  orifice 
(Fig.  28),  through  which  the  air  passes  to  and  from 
the  lungs.  If  the  cords  are  tightened,  the  edges 


FIG.  27. 


Passage  to  the  (Esophagus  and  Windpipe,  c,  the  tongue;  d,  the  soft  palate, 
ending  in  g,  the  uvula;  h,  the  epiglottis;  i,  the  glottis;  I,  the  oesophagus;  f,  the, 
pharynx. 


approach  sometimes  within  ^-5-  of  an  inch  of  each 
other,  and,  being  thrown  into  vibration,  cause  cor- 
responding vibrations  in  the  current  of  air.  Thus 
sound  is  produced  in  the  same  manner  as  by  the 

*  The  cartilages  and  vocal  cords  may  be  readily  seen  in  the  larynx  of 
an  ox  or  sheep.  If  the  flesh  be  cut  off,  the  cartilages  will  dry,  and  will 
keep  for  years, 


75,76.]   DIFFERENT  TONES  OF  THE  VOICE. 


75 


FIG.  28. 


e,  e,  the  vocal  cords;  d,  the 
epiglottis. 


vibrations  of  the  tongues  of  an  accordion,  or  the 
strings  of  a  violin,  only  in  this  case  the  strings  are 
scarcely  an  inch  long. 

Different  Tones  of  the  Voice. 
—  The  higher  tones  of  the  voice 
are  produced  when  the  cords  are 
short,  tight,  and  closely  in  con- 
tact ;  the  lower,  by  the  opposite 
conditions.  Loudness  is  regulated 
by  the  quantity  of  air  and  force 
of  expulsion.  A  falsetto  voice  is 
thought  to  be  the  result  of  a 
peculiarity  in  the  pharynx  {Fig. 
27)  at  the  back  part  of  the  nose; 
it  is  more  probably  produced  by  some  muscular 
maneuver  not  yet  fully  understood.  When  boys 
are  about  fourteen  years  of  age,  the  larynx  enlarges, 
and  the  cords  grow  proportionately  longer  and 
coarser ;  hence,  the  voice  becomes  deeper,  or,  as  we 
say,  "changes."  The  peculiar  harshness  of  the  voice 
at  this  time  seems  to  be  due  to  a  congestion  of  the 
mucous  membrane  of  the  cords.  The  change  may 
occur  very  suddenly,  the  voice  breaking  in  a  single 
night. 

Speech  is  voice  modulated  by  the  lips,  tongue,* 

*  The  tongue  is  styled  the  "  unruly  member,"  and  held  reponsible  for 
all  the  tattling  of  the  world ;  but  when  the  tongue  is  removed,  the  adjacent 
organs  in  some  way  largely  supply  the  deficiency,  so  that  speech  is  still 
possible.  Huxley  describes  the  conversation  of  a  man  who  had  two  and 
one  half  inches  of  his  tongue  preserved  in  spirits,  and  yet  could  converse 
intelligibly.  Only  the  two  letters  t  and  d  were  beyond  his  power;  the 
articulation  of  these  involves  the  employment  of  the  tip  of  the  tongue; 
hence,  "tin"  he  converted  into  "fin,"  and  "dog"  into  "thog." 


76 


KESPIRATION     AND     THE     VOICE. 


[76. 


palate,  and  teeth.*     Speech  and  voice  are  commonly 
associated,  but  speech  may  exist  without  the  voice ; 


FIG.  29. 


The  Lungs,  showing  the  Larynx.     A,  the  windpipe;  B,  the  bronchial  tubes. 

for  when  we  whisper  we  articulate  the  words, 
although  there  is  no  vocalization,  i.  e.,  no  action  of 
the  larynx,  f  (See  p.  297.) 

*  An  artificial  larynx  may  be  made  by  using  elastic  bands  to  represent 
the  vocal  cords,  and  by  placing  above  them  chambers  which  by  their  reso- 
nance will  produce  the  same  effect  as  the  cavities  lying  above  the  larynx. 
An  artificial  speaking-machine  was  constructed  by  Kempelen,  which  could 
pronounce  such  sentences  as,  "I  love  you  with  all  my  heart,"  in  different 
languages,  by  simply  touching  the  proper  keys. 

t  We  can  observe  this  by  placing  the  hand  on  the  throat,  and  noticing 
the  absence  of  vibrations  when  we  whisper,  and  their  presence  when  we 


76,.77.],,         FORMATION     OF     VOCAL     SOUNDS.  77 

Formation  of  Vocal  Sounds.— The  method  of 
modulating  voice  into  speech  may  be  seen  by  pro- 
ducing the  pure  vowel  sounds  a,  e,  etc.,  from  one 
expiration,  the  mouth  being  kept  open  while  the 
form  of  the  aperture  is  changed  for  each  vowel  by 
the  tongue  and  the  lips.  H  is  only  an  explosion,  or 
forcible  throwing  of  a  vowel  sound  from  the  mouth.* 

The  consonants,  or  short  sounds,  may  also  be 
made  without  interrupting  the  current  of  air,  by 
various  modifications  of  the  vocal  organs.  In  sound- 
ing singly  any  one  of  the  letters,  we  can  detect  its 
peculiar  requirements.  Thus  m  and  n  can  be  made 
only  by  blocking  the  air  in  the  mouth  and  sending 
it  through  the  nose ;  I  lets  the  air  escape  at  the 
sides  of  the  tongue ;  r  needs  a  vibratory  movement 
of  the  tongue ;  b  and  p  stop  the  breath  at  the  lips ; 
k  and  g  (hard),  at  the  back  of  the  palate.  Consonants 
like  &  and  d  are  abrupt,  or,  like  I  and  s,  continuous. 
Those  made  by  the  lips  are  termed  labials ;  those  by 
pressing  the  tongue  against  the  teeth,  dentals ;  those 
by  the  tongue,  linguals. 

The  child  gains  speech  slowly,  first  learning  to 
pronounce  the  vowel  a,  the  consonants  &,  m,  and  p, 
and  then  their  unions — &a,  ma.,  pa. 


talk.  The  difference  between  vocalization  and  non-vocalization  is  seen  in  a 
sigh  and  a  groan,  the  latter  being  the  former  vocalized.  Whistling  is  a 
pure  mouth-sound,  and  does  not  depend  on  the  voice.  Laughter  is  vocal, 
being  the  aspirated  vowels,  a,  e,  or  o,  convulsively  repeated. 

*  When,  in  sounding  a  vowel,  the  sound  coincides  with  a  sudden  change 
in  the  position  of  the  vocal  cords  from  one  of  divergence  to  one  of  approxi- 
mation, the  vowel  is  pronounced  with  the  spintus  asper.  When  the  vocal 
cords  are  brought  together  before  the  blast  of  air  begins,  the  vowel  is  pro- 
nounced with  the  spintus  lenis.— FOSTER. 


78 


RESPIKATION     AND     THE     VOICE. 


[77,  78. 


FIG.  30. 


Description  of  the  Organs  of  Respiration.— Be- 
neath the  larynx  is  the  windpipe,  or  trachea  (see 
Fig.  29),  so  called  because  of  its  roughness.  It  is 

strengthened  by  0-  shaped 
cartilages  with  the  openings 
behind,  where  they  are  at- 
tached to  the  oesophagus. 
At  the  lower  end,  the  trachea 
divides  into  two  branches, 
called  the  right  and  left 
bronchi.  These  subdivide  in 
the  small  bronchial  tubes, 
which  ramify  through  the 
lungs  like  the  branches  of  a 
tree,  the  tiny  twigs  of  which 
at  last  end  in  clusters  of 

Bronchial  Tubes,  with  clusters  of  cells. 

cells  so  small  that  there  are 

six  hundred  million  in  all.  This  cellular  structure 
renders  the  lungs  exceedingly  soft,  elastic,  and 
sponge-like.* 

The  stiff,  cartilaginous  rings,  so  noticeable  in  the 
rough  surface  of  the  trachea  and  the  bronchi,  dis- 
appear as  we  reach  the  smaller  bronchial  tubes,  so 
that  while  the  former  are  kept  constantly  open  for 
the  free  admission  of  air,  the  latter  are  provided 
with  elastic  fibers  by  which  they  may  be  almost 
closed. 

*  The  lungs  of  slaughtered  animals  are  vulgarly  called  "lights,"  prob- 
ably on  account  of  their  lightness.  They  are  similar  -in  structure  to  those 
of  man.  They  will  float  on  water,  and  if  a  small  piece  be  forcibly  squeezed 
between  the  fingers  (notice  the  creaking  sound  it  gives),  it  will  retain  suffi- 
cient air  to  make  it  buoyant. 


78,  79.] 


THE     CILIA. 


70 


Wrappings  of  the  Lungs. — The  lungs  are  invested 
with  a  double  covering— the  pleura — one  layer  being 
attached  to  the  lungs  and  the  other  to  the  walls  of 
the  chest.  It  secretes 
a  fluid  which  lubri- 
cates it,  so  that  the 
layers  glide  upon  each 
other  with  perfect 
ease.*  The  lungs  are 
lined  with  mucous 
membrane,  exceed- 
ingly  delicate  and  sen- 
sitive to  the  presence 
of  any  thing  except 
pure  air.  We  have  all 
noticed  this  when  we 
have  breathed  any 
thing  offensive. 

The  Cilia.— Along 
the  air  passages  are 
minute  filaments 

(cilia  Fig;.  32)  Which  A,  the  heart  ;&,  the  lungs  drawn  aside  to  show 

the  internal  organs ;  C,  the  diaphragm ;  D,  the 

are  in  Constant  mo-  liver ;  E,  the  gall  cyst ;  F,  the  stomach ,'  G-,  the 

small  intestines  ;  H,  the  transverse  colon. 

tion,    like    a    field    of 

grain  stirred  by  a  gentle  breeze.  They  serve  to  fan 
the  air  in  the  lungs,  and  produce  an  outward  current, 
which  is  useful  in  catching  dust  and  fine  particles 
swept  inward  with  the  breath. 


*  These  pleural  sacs  are  distinct  and  closed ;  hence,  when  the  ribs  are 
raised,  a  partial  vacuum  being  formed  in  the  sacs,  air  rushes  in,  and  dis- 
tends the  pulmonary  lobules. 


80 


RESPIRATION     AND     THE     VOICE. 


[80. 


FIG.  32. 


B,  a  section  of  the 
membrane,  showing  the  cilia 
rising  from  the  peculiar  epi- 
thelial cells  on  the  outside  of 
the  mucous  membrane  lining 
the  tubes;  A,  a  single  cell 
more  highly  magnified. 


How    we    Breathe. — Respiration    consists    of    two 
acts — taking  in  the  air,  or  inspiration,  and  expelling 
the    air,   or    expiration. 

1.  Inspiration. — When  we  draw 
in  a  full  breath,  we  straighten  the 
spine  and  throw  the  head  and 
shoulders  back,  so  as  to  give  the 
greatest  advantage  to  the  mus- 
cles.* At  the  same  time,  the  dia- 
phragm f  descends  and  presses 
the  walls  of  the  abdomen  out- 
ward. Both  these  processes  in- 
crease the  size  of  the  chest. 
Thereupon,  the  elastic  lungs  ex- 
pand to  occupy  the  extra  space,  while  the  air,  rush- 
ing in  through  the  windpipe,  pours  along  the  bron- 
chial tubes  and  crowds  into  every  cell.J 

*  If  we  examine  the  bony  cage  of  the  thorax  or  chest  in  Fig.  8,  we 
shall  see  that  the  position  of  the  ribs  may  alter  its  capacity  in  two  ways. 

1.  As  they  run  obliquely  downward  from  the  spine,  if  the  sternum  or 
breast-bone  be  lifted  in  front,  the  diameter  of  the  chest  will  be  increased. 

2.  The  ribs  are  fastened  by  elastic  cartilages,  which  stretch  as  the  muscles 
that  lift  the  ribs  contract,  and  so  increase  the  breadth  of  the  chest. 

t  The  diaphragm  is  the  muscular  partition  between  the  chest  and  the 
abdomen.  It  is  always  convex  toward  the  former,  and  concave  toward  the 
latter  (Fig.  31).  Long  muscular  fibers  extend  from  its  center  toward  the 
ribs  in  front  and  the  spine  at  the  back.  When  these  contract,  they  depress 
and  flatten  the  diaphragm ;  when  they  relax,  it  becomes  convex  again.  In 
the  former  case,  the  bowels  are  pressed  downward  and  the  abdomen  pushed 
outward ;  in  the  latter,  the  bowels  spring  upward,  and  the  abdomen  is 
drawn  inward. 

$  It  is  said  that  in  drawing  a  full  breath,  the  muscles  exert  a  force  equal 
to  raising  a  weight  of  seven  hundred  and  fifty  pounds.  When  we  are  about 
to  make  a  great  effort,  as  in  striking  a  heavy  blow,  we  naturally  take  a  deep 
inspiration,  and  shut  the  glottis.  The  confined  air  makes  the  chest  tense 
and  firm,  and  enables  us  to  exert  a  greater  force.  As  we  let  slip  the  blow, 
the  glottis  opens  and  the  air  escapes,  often  with  a  curious  aspirated  sound, 


80,81.]        MODIFICATIONS     OF     THE     BREATH.  81 

2.  Expiration. — When  we  forcibly  expel  the  air 
from  our  lungs,  the  operation  is  reversed.  We  bend 
forward,  draw  in  the  walls  of  the  abdomen,  and 
press  the  diaphragm  upward,  while  the  ribs  are 
pulled  downward, — all  together  diminishing  the  size 
of  the  chest,  and  forcing  the  air  outward. 

Ordinary,  quiet  breathing  is  performed  mainly  by 
the  diaphragm, — one  breath  to  every  four  beats  of 
the  heart,  or  eighteen  per  minute.  (See  p.  299.) 

Modifications  of  the  Breath. — Sighing  is  merely  a 
prolonged  inspiration  followed  by  an  audible  expira- 
tion. Coughing  is  a  violent  expiration  in  which  the 
air  is  driven  through  the  mouth.  Sneezing  differs 
from  coughing,  the  air  being  forced  through  the 
nose.  Snoring  is  produced  by  the  passage  of  the 
breath  through  the  pharynx  when  the  tongue  and 
soft  palate  are  in  certain  positions.*  Laughing  and 
crying  are  very  much  alike.  The  expression  of  the 
face  is  necessary  to  distinguish  between  them.  The 
sounds  are  produced  by  short,  rapid  contractions  of 
the  diaphragm.  Hiccough  is  confined  to  inspiration. 

as  is  noticeable  in  workmen.  To  make  a  good  shot  with  a  rifle,  we  should 
take  aim  with  a  full  chest  and  tight  breath,  since  then  the  arms  will  have 
a  steadier  support. 

*  The  soft  palate  must  have  fallen  back  in  such  a  manner  as  nearly 
or  quite  to  close  the  entrance  to  the  nasal  cavity  from  the  throat,  and  the 
tongue  must  also  be  thrown  back  so  far  as  to  leave  only  a  narrow  opening 
between  it  and  the  soft  palate.  The  noise  is  produced  by  the  air  being 
forced  either  inward  or  outward  through  this  opening.  A  snore  results 
also  when,  with  a  closed  mouth,  the  air  is  forced  between  the  soft  palate 
and  the  back  wall  of  the  pharynx  into  the  nasal  cavity.  With  deep 
breathing,  perhaps  accompanied  by  a  variation  in  the  position  of  the  soft 
palate,  a  rattling  noise  may  be  heard  in  addition  to  the  snoring,  which  is 
due  to  a  vibration  of  the  soft  palate.— F.  A.  FERNALD,  in  "How  we  Sneeze, 
Laugh,  Stammer,  and  Sigh."— Popular  Science  Monthly,  Feb.,  1884. 


82  RESPIRATION     AND     THE     VOICE.  181,82. 

It  is  caused  by  a  contraction  of  the  diaphragm  and 
a  constriction  of  the  glottis ;  the  current  of  air  just 
entering,  as  it  strikes  the  closed  glottis,  gives  rise 
to  the  well-known  sound.  Yawning,  or  gaping,  is 
like  sighing.*  It  is  distinguished  by  a  wide  opening 
of  the  mouth  and  a  deep,  profound  inspiration.  Both 
processes  furnish  additional  air,  and  therefore  prob- 
ably meet  a  demand  of  the  system  for  more  oxygen. 
Frequently,  however,  they  are  like  laughing,  sobbing, 
etc.,  merely  a  sort  of  contagion,  which  runs  through 
an  audience,  and  seems  almost  irresistible. 

The  Capacity  of  the  Lungs.— If  we  take  a  deep 
inspiration,  and  then  forcibly  exhale  all  the  air  we 
can  expel  from  the  lungs,  this  amount,  which  is 
termed  the  breathing  capacity,  will  bear  a  very  close 
correspondence  to  our  stature.  For  a  man  of  medium 
height  (five  feet  eight  inches)  it  will  be  about  two 
hundred  and  thirty  cubic  inches, f  or  a  gallon,  and 
for  each  inch  of  height  between  five  and  six  feet 
there  will  be  an  increase  of  eight  cubic  inches.  In 
addition,  it  is  found  that  the  lungs  contain  about 
one  hundred  cubic  inches  which  can  not  be  expelled, 
thus  making  their  entire  contents  about  three  hun- 

*  The  usefulness  of  a  yawn  lies  in  bringing  up  the  arrears,  as  it 
were,  of  respiration,  when  it  has  fallen  behindhand,  either  through 
fatigue  or  close  attention  to  other  occupation.  The  stretching  of  the 
jaws  and  limbs  may  also  serve  to  equalize  the  nervous  influence,  certain 
muscles  having  become  uneasy  on  account  of  being  stretched  or  contracted 
for  a  long  time. 

t  Of  this  amount,  one  hundred  cubic  inches  can  be  forced  in  only  by 
an  extra  effort,  and  is  available  for  emergencies,  or  for  purposes  of  train- 
ing, as  in  singing,  climbing,  etc.  It  is  of  great  importance,  since,  if  the 
capacity  of  the  lungs  only  equaled  our  daily  wants,  the  least  obstruction 
would  prove  fatal. 


82,83.]  THE     NEED     OF     AIR.  83 

dred  and  thirty  cubic  inches,  or  eleven  pints.  The 
extra  amount  always  on  hand  in  the  lungs  is  of 
great  value,  since  thereby  the  action  of  the  air  goes 
on  continuously,  even  during  a  violent  expiration. 
In  ordinary  breathing,  only  about  twenty  or  thirty 
cubic  inches  (less  than  a  pint)  of  air  pass  in  and  out. 

The  Need  of  Air. — The  body  needs  food,  clothing, 
sunshine,  bathing,  and  drink ;  but  none  of  these 
wants  is  so  pressing  as  that  for  air.  The  other  de- 
mands may  be  met  by  occasional  supplies,  but  air 
must  be  furnished  every  moment  or  we  die.  Now 
the  vital  element  of  the  atmosphere  is  oxygen  gas.* 
This  is  a  stimulating,  life-giving  principle.  No  tonic 
will  so  invigorate  as  a  few  full,  deep  breaths  of  cold, 
pure  air.  Every  organ  will  glow  with  the  energy  of 
the  fiery  oxygen. 

Action  of  the  Air  in  the  Lungs. — In  the  delicate 
cells  of  the  lungs,  the  air  gives  up  its  oxygen  to  the 
blood,  and  receives  in  turn  carbonic-acid  gas  and 
water,  foul  with  waste  matter  which  the  blood  has 
picked  up  in  its  circulation  through  the  body.  The 
blood,  thus  purified  and  laden  with  the  inspiring 
oxygen,  goes  bounding  through  the  system,  while 
the  air  we  exhale  carries  off  the  impurities.  In  this 
process,  the  blood  changes  from  purple  to  red.  If 
we  examine  our  breath,  we  can  readily  see  what  it 
has  removed  from  the  blood. 


*  See  "  Steele's  Popular  Chemistry,"  p.  30.  The  atmosphere  consists 
of  one  fifth  oxygen  and  four  fifths  nitrogen.  The  former  is  the  active 
element;  and  the  latter,  the  passive.  Oxygen  alone  would  be  too  stimu- 
lating, and  must  be  restrained  by  the  neutral  nitrogen.  Separately,  either 
element  of  the  air  would  kill  us. 


84  RESPIRATION     AND     THE     VOICE.  [83,84. 

Tests  of  the  Breath. — 1.  Breathe  into  a  jar,  and 
on  lowering  into  it  a  lighted  candle,  the  flame  will 
be  instantly  extinguished ;  thus  indicating  the  pres- 
ence of  carbonic-acid  gas.  2.  Breathe  upon  a  mirror, 
and  a  film  of  moisture  will  show  the  vapor.*  3.  If 
breath  be  confined  in  a  bottle,  the  animal  matter 
will  decompose  and  give  off  an  offensive  odor. 

Analysis  of  the  Expired  Air  shows  that  it  has  lost 
about  twenty-five  per  cent,  of  its  oxygen,  and  gained 
an  equal  amount  of  carbonic-acid  gas,  besides  moist- 
ure, and  organic  impurities.  Our  breath,  then,  is  air 
robbed  of  its  vitality,  and  containing  in  its  place  a 
gas  as  fatal  to  life  f  as  it  is  to  a  flame,  and  effete 
matter  which  is  disagreeable  to  the  smell,  injurious 
to  the  health,  and  which  may  contain  the  germs  of 
serious  disease. 

The  Evil  Effect  of  Re-breathing  the  air  can  not 
be  overestimated.  We  take  back  into  our  bodies  that 
which  has  just  been  rejected.  The  blood  thereupon 
leaves  the  lungs,  bearing,  not  the  invigorating  oxy- 
gen, but  refuse  matter  to  obstruct  the  whole  system. 
We  soon  feel  the  effect.  The  muscles  become  in- 


*  There  is  a  close  relation  between  the  functions  of  the  skin,  the  lungs, 
and  the  kidneys— the  scavengers  of  the  body.  They  all  carry  off  water 
from  the  blood,  and  when  the  function  of  one  of  the  three  is,  in  this  re- 
spect, interfered  with,  the  others  are  called  upon  to  perform  its  functions. 
When  the  function  of  perspiration  is  deranged,  the  lungs  and  kidneys  are 
required  to  perform  heavier  duty,  and  this  may  lead  to  disease  (see  p.  62). 

+  Carbonic-acid  gas  can  not  be  breathed  when  undiluted,  as  the  glottis 
closes  and  forbids  its  passage  into  the  lungs.  Air  containing  only  three  or 
four  per  cent,  acts  as  a  narcotic  poison  (MILLER),  and  a  much  smaller  pro- 
portion will  have  an  injurious  effect.  The  great  danger,  however,  lies  in 
the  organic  particles  constantly  exhaled  from  the  lungs  and  the  skin, 
which,  it  is  believed,  are  often  direct  and  active  poisons, 


84,85.]  CONCERNING     VENTILATION.  85 

active.  The  blood  stagnates.  The  heart  acts  slowly. 
The  food  is  undigested.  The  brain  is  clogged.  The 
head  aches.  Instances  of  fatal  results  are  only  too 
frequent.*  The  constant  breathing  of  even  the 
slightly-impure  air  of  our  houses  can  not  but  tend 
to  undermine  the  health.  The  blood  is  not  purified, 
and  is  thus  in  a  condition  to  receive  the  seeds  of 
disease  at  any  time.  The  system  uninspired  by  the 
energizing  oxygen  is  sensitive  to  cold.  The  pale 
cheek,  the  lusterless  eye,  the  languid  step,  speak  but 
too  plainly  of  oxygen  starvation.  In  such  a  soil, 
catarrh,  scrofula,  and  kindred  diseases  run  riot.f 
^/Concerning  the  Need  of  Ventilation. —  The  foul 
air  which  passes  off  from  the  lungs  and  through  the 
pores  of  the  skin  does  not  fall  to  the  floor,  but 
diffuses  itself  through  the  surrounding  atmosphere. 
A  single  breath  will  to  a  trifling  but  certain  extent 
taint  the  air  of  a  whole  room.J  A  light  will  vitiate 

*  During  the  English  war  in  India,  in  the  last  century,  one  hundred 
and  forty-six  prisoners  were  shut  up  in  a  room  scarcely  large  enough  to 
hold  them.  The  air  could  enter  only  by  two  narrow  windows.  At  the  end 
of  eight  hours,  but  twenty-three  persons  remained  alive,  and  these  were  in 
a  most  deplorable  condition.  This  prison  is  well  called  "  The  Black  Hole  of 
Calcutta."— Percy  relates  that  after  the  battle  of  Austerlitz,  three  hundred 
Russian  prisoners  were  confined  in  a  cavern, .  where  two  hundred  and  sixty 
of  them  perished  in  a  few  hours.— The  stupid  captain  of  the  ship  Londonderry, 
during  a  storm  at  sea,  shut  the  hatches.  There  were  only  seven  cubic  feet 
of  space  left  for  each  person,  and  in  six  hours  ninety  of  the  passengers 
were  dead. 

t  One  not  very  strong,  or  unable  powerfully  to  resist  conditions  unfa- 
vorable to  health,  and  with  a  predisposition  to  lung  disease,  will  be  sure, 
sooner  or  later,  by  partial  lung-starvation  and  blood-poisoning,  to  develop 
pulmonary  consumption.  The  lack  of  what  is  so  abundant  and  so  cheap— good, 
pure  air — is  'unquestionably  the  one  great  cause  of  this  terrible  disease.  —  BLACK'S 
Ten  Laws  of  Health. 

$  This  grows  out  of  a  well-known  philosophical  principle  called  the 
Diffusion  of  Q-ases,  whereby  two  gases  tend  to  mix  in  exact  proportions,  no 


86  KESPIRATION     AND     THE     VOICE.  [85,86. 

as  much  air  as  a  dozen  persons.  Many  breaths  and 
lights  therefore  rapidly  unfit  the  air  for  our  use. 

The  perfection  of  ventilation  is  reached  when  the 
air  of  a  room  is  as  pure  as  that  out-of-doors.  To 
accomplish  this  result,  it  is  necessary  to  allow  for 
each  person  six  hundred  cubic  feet  of  space,  while 
ventilation  is  still  going  on  in  the  best  manner 
known. 

In  spite  of  these  well-known  facts,  scarcely  any 
pains  are  taken  to  supply  fresh  air,  while  the  doors 
and  windows  where  the  life-giving  oxygen  might 
creep  in  are  hermetically  stopped. 

How  often  is  this  true  of  the  sick-room.  Yet  here 
the  danger  of  bad  air  is  intensified.  The  expired 
breath  of  the  patient  is  peculiarly  threatening  to 
himself  as  well  as  to  others.  Nature  is  seeking  to 
throw  off  the  poison  of  the  disease.  The  scavengers 
of  the  body  are  all  at  work.  The  breath  and  the 
insensible  perspiration  are  loaded  with  impurities.* 
The  odor  is  oftentimes  exceedingly  offensive.  Sick 
and  well  alike  need  an  abundance  of  fresh  air.  But, 
too  often,  it  is  the  only  want  not  supplied. 

Our  sitting-rooms,  heated  by  furnaces  or  red-hot 
stoves,  generally  have  no  means  of  ventilation,  or, 


matter  what  may  be  the  quantity  of  each. — STEELE'S  Popular  Chemistry,  p.  86, 
and  Popular  Physics,  p.  52. 

*  The  floating  dust  in  the  air,  revealed  to  us  "by  the  sunbeam  shining 
through  a  crack  in  the  blinds,  shows  the  abundance  of  these  impurities, 
and  also  the  presence  of  germs  which,  lodging  in  the  lungs,  may  implant 
disease,  unless  thrown  off  by  a  vigorous  constitution.  "  On  uncovering  a 
scarlet-fever  patient,  a  cloud  of  fine  dust  is  seen  to  rise  from  the  body- 
contagious  dust,  that  for  days  will  retain  its  poisonous  properties.11— YOUMANS. 
(See  p.  300.) 


86,87.]  CONCERNING     VENTILATION.  87 

if  provided,  they  are  seldom  used.  A  window  is  oc- 
casionally dropped  to  give  a  little  relief,  as  if  pure 
air  were  a  rarity,  and  must  be  doled  out  to  the  suf- 
fering lungs  in  morsels,  instead  of  full  and  constant 
draughts.  The  inmates  are  starved  by  scanty  lung- 
food,  and  stupefied  by  foul  air.  The  process  goes  on 
year  by  year.-  The  weakened  and  poisoned  body  at 
last  succumbs  to  disease,  while  we,  in  our  blindness 
and  ignorance,  talk  of  the  mysterious  Providence 
which  thus  untimely  cuts  down  the  brightest  intel- 
lects. The  truth  is,  death  is  often  simply  the  penalty 
for  violating  nature's  laws.  Bad  air  begets  disease ; 
disease  begets  death. 

In  our  churches,  the  foul  air  left  by  the  congre- 
gation on  Sunday  is  shut  up  during  the  week,  and 
heated  for  the  next  Lord's  day,  when  the  people 
assemble  to  re-breathe  the  polluted  atmosphere. 
They  are  thus  forced,  with  every  breath  they  take, 
to  violate  the  physical  laws  of  Him  whom  they  meet 
to  worship, — laws  written  not  three  thousand  years 
ago  upon  Mount  Sinai  on  tables  of  stone,  but  to-day 
engraved  in  the  constitution  of  their  own  living, 
breathing  bodies.  On  brains  benumbed  and  starving 
for  oxygen,  the  purest  truth  and  the  highest  elo- 
quence fall  with  little  force. 

We  sleep  in  a  small  bedroom  from  which  every 
breath  of  fresh  air  is  excluded,  because  we  believe 
night  air  to  be  unhealthy,*  and  so  we  breathe  its 


*  There  is  a  singular  prejudice  against  the  night  air.  Yet,  as  Florence 
Nightingale  aptly  says,  what  other  air  can  we  breathe  at  night?  We  then 
have  the  choice  between  foul  air  within  and  pure  air  without.  For,  in 


RESPIRATION     AND     THE     VOICE.  [87,88. 

dozen  hogsheads  of  air  over  and  over  again,  and 
then  wonder  why  we  awaken  in  the  morning  so  dull 
and  unrefreshed !  Return  to  our  room  after  inhaling 
the  fresh,  morning  air,  and  the  fetid  odor  we  meet 
on  opening  the  door,  is  convincing  proof  how  we 
have  poisoned  our  lungs  during  the  night. 

Each  room  should  be  supplied  with  two  thousand 
feet  of  fresh  air  per  hour  for  every  person  it  con- 
tains. Our  ingenuity  ought  to  find  some  way  of 
doing  this  advantageously  and  pleasantly.  A  moiety 
of  the  care  we  devote  to  delicate  articles  of  food, 
drink,  and  dress  would  abundantly  meet  this  prime 
necessity  of  our  bodies. 

Open  the  windows  a  little  at  the  top  and  the 
bottom.  Put  on  plenty  of  clothing  to  keep  warm  by 
day  and  by  night,  and  then  let  the  inspiring  oxygen 
come  in  as  freely  as  God  has  given  it.  Pure  air  is 
the  cheapest  necessity  and  luxury  of  life.  Let  it  not 
be  the  rarest ! 

School-room  Ventilation. — Who,  on  going  from 
the  open  air  of  a  clear,  bracing  winter's  day,  into  a 
crowded  school-room,  late  in  the  session,  has  not 
noticed  the  disagreeable  odor,  and  been  for  a  mo- 
ment nauseated  and  half-stifled  by  the  oppressive 
atmosphere!  It  is  not  strange.  See  how  many 
causes  here  combine  to  pollute  the  air.  If  the  room 
is  heated  by  a  stove,  quantities  of  carbonic-oxide 
and  carbonic-acid  gases,  as  well  as  other  products 


large  cities  especially,  the  night  air  is  far  more  wholesome  than  that  of  the 
day-time.  To  secure  fresh  air  all  night,  we  must  open  the  windows  of  our 
bedroom. 


88.]  SCHOOL-ROOM     VENTILATION.  89 

of  combustion,  driven  by  downward  drafts  in  the 
flue,  escape  through  seams  and  cracks  and  the  occa- 
sionally-opened door  of  the  stove.  In  the  case  of  a 
furnace,  the  same  effect  is  too  often  experienced, 
and  the  odor  of  coal-gas  is  a  common  one,  especially 
when  the  fire  is  replenished.  The  insensible  perspira- 
tion is  more  active  in  children  than  in  adults ;  they, 
moreover,  rush  in  with  their  clothing  saturated  with 
the  perspiration  induced  by  their  sports ;  so  that,  on 
the  average,  each  pupil,  during  school-hours,  loads 
the  air  with  about  half  a  pint  of  aqueous  vapor. 
The  children  come,  oftentimes,  from  homes  that  are 
close,  ill-ventilated,  and  uncleanly ;  and  frequently 
from  sick-rooms,  bringing  in  their  clothing  the  germs 
of  disease.  (See  p.  304.)  Some  of  the  pupils  may 
even  bear  traces  of  illness,  or  have  unsound  organs, 
and  so  their  breath  and  exhalations  be  poisonous. 

In  addition  to  all  this,  the  air  is  filled  with  dust 
brought  in  and  kept  astir  by  many  busy  feet ;  with 
ashes  floating  from  the  stove  or  furnace  ;  and  espe- 
cially with  chalk-dust.  The  modern  method  of  teach- 
ing requires  a  large  amount  of  blackboard  work,  and 
the  air  of  the  school-room  is  thus  loaded  with  chalk 
particles.  These  collect  in  the  nasal  passages,  and 
the  upper  part  of  the  larynx,  and  irritate  the  mem- 
brane, perhaps  laying  the  foundation  of  catarrh. 

The  usual  school-room  atmosphere  bears  in  the 
pupils  the  natural  fruit  of  frequent  headaches,  in- 
attention, weariness,  and  stupor ;  but  in  the  teacher 
its  frightful  influence  is  most  apparent.  His  labor 
is  severe,  his  worry  of  mind  is  constant,  and,  when 


90  RESPIRATION     AND     THE     VOICE.  [89. 

he  finishes  his  day's  work,  he  is  generally  too  tired 
to  take  proper  physical  exercise.  He  consequently 
labors  on  with  impaired  health,  or  is  forced  to  aban- 
don his  profession. 

Instead  of  six  hundred  feet  of  space  being  allowed 
for  each  pupil,  as  perfect  ventilation  demands  —  the 
lowest  estimate  being  two  hundred  and  fifty  feet  — 
often  not  over  one  hundred  feet  are  afforded.  In- 
stead of  two  thousand  cubic  feet  of  fresh  air  being 
supplied  every  hour  for  each  person,  and  as  much 
foul  air  removed,  which,  all  physiologists  assert,  is 
needed  for  perfect  health,  perhaps  no  means  of  ven- 
tilation at  all  are  provided,  and  none  is  secured 
except  what  an  occasionally-opened  door,  or  the  be- 
nevolent cracks  and  chinks  in  the  building  furnish 
the  suffering  lungs.* 

\/How  shall  We  Ventilate  ?  — The  usual  method  of 
ventilation  depends  upon  the  fact  that  hot  air  is 
lighter  than  cold  air,  and  so  the  cold  air  tends,  by 
the  force  of  gravity,  to  fall  and  compel  the  warm 
air  to  rise.  Thus,  if  we  open  the  door  of  a  heated 
room,  and  hold  a  lighted  candle  first  at  the  top,  and 
then  at  the  bottom,  we  can  see,  by  the  deflection  of 
the  flame,  that  there  is  a  current  of  air  setting  out- 

*  Imagine  fifty  pupils  put  into  a  class-room  thirty  feet  long,  twenty -five 
feet  wide,  and  ten  feet  high.  This  would  generally  be  considered  a  very 
liberal  provision.  Such  a  room  contains  seven  thousand  five  hundred  cubic 
feet  of  air.  But  it  furnishes  only  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  of  space  for 
each  pupil.  Allowing  ten  cubic  feet  of  air  per  pupil  each  minute,  in  fifteen 
minutes  after  assembling,  the  entire  atmosphere  of  the  room  is  tainted, 
and  unfit  to  be  re-breathed.  The  demand  of  health  is  that  at  lea  t  one 
thousand  five  hundred  cubic  feet  of  pure  air  should  be  admitted  into  this 
room  every  minute,  and  as  much  be  removed. 


89,90.]  HOW     SHALL     WE     VENTILATE?  91 

ward  at  the  top,  and  another  setting  inward  at  the 
bottom  of  the  opening.  A  handkerchief  held  loosely, 
or  the  smoke  of  a  smoldering  match,  in  front  of  a 
fire-place  will  show  a  current  of  air  passing  up  the 
chimney  ;  this  is  caused  by  the  difference  of  temper- 
ature between  the  air  in  the  room  and  the  outside 
atmosphere.  Upon  this  difference  of  temperature,  all 
ordinary  ventilation  is  based.*  A  proper  treatment 
of  this  subject  and  its  practical  applications,  would 
require  a  book  by  itself.  There  is  room  here  for 
only  a  few  general  statements  and  suggestions. 

1.  Two  openings  are  always  necessary  to  produce 
a  thorough  change  of  air.     (See  "Popular  Chemistry," 
p.  70.)     Put  a  lighted  candle  in  a  bottle.     The  flame 
w^ill  soon  be  extinguished.     The  oxygen  of  the  little 
air  in  the  bottle  is  burned  out,  and  carbonic-acid  has 
taken  its  place.     Now  place  over  the   mouth  of  the 
bottle  a  lamp-chimney,  and  insert  in  the  chimney  a 
strip  of  card-board,  thus  dividing  the  passage.     On 
relighting  the  candle,  it  will  burn  freely.     The  smoke 
of   a   bit   of    smoldering   paper   will   show   that    two 
opposite  currents  of  air  are  established,  one  setting 
into  the  bottle,  the  other  outward. 

2.  In  the  winter,  when  our  school-rooms,  churches, 
public  halls,   etc.,   are   heated   artificially,  ventilation 
is    comparatively    easy   if    properly   arranged,  f      The 


*  Public  buildings  are  sometimes  ventilated  by  mechanical  means,  i. «., 
immense  fans  which  are  turned  by  machinery,  and  thus  set  the  air  in 
motion.  Such  methods  are,  however,  expensive,  and  rarely  adopted,  except 
where  power  is  also  used  for  other  purposes. 

t  For  the  escape  of  bad  air,  Dr.  Bell  suggests  that  an  efficient  foul-air 
shaft  may  be  fitted  to  the  cormnonest  of  stoves  by  simply  inclosing  the 


92  RESPIRATION    AND     THE    VOICE.  [00,91. 

required  difference  of  temperature  is  kept  up  with 
little  difficulty.  The  fresh  air  admitted  to  the  room 
should  then  be  heated*  either  by  a  furnace,  or  by 
passing  over  a  stove,  or  through  a  coil  of  steam- 
pipes.  This  cold  air  should  always  be  taken  directly 
from  out-of-doors,  and  not  from  a  cellar,  or  from 
under  a  piazza,  where  contamination  is  possible. 

3.  In  order  to  remove  the  impure  air,  there  should 
be  ventilators  provided  at  or  near  the  floor,  opening 
into  air-shafts,  or  pipes  leading  upward  through  the 
roof,  with  proper  orifices  at  the  top.  These  venti- 
lating-pipes  should  be  heated  artificially  so  as  to 
produce  a  draught.  They  may  form  one  of  the  flues 
of  a  chimney  in  which  there  is  a  constant  fire ;  or  be 
carried  upward  in  a  large  flue  through  the  center  of 
which  runs  the  smoke-pipe  of  the  furnace  or  stove ;  f 


stove-pipe  in  a  jacket  — that  is,  in  a  pipe  two  or  three  inches  greater  in 
diameter.  This  should  be  braced  round  the  stove-pipe  and  left  open  at  the 
end  next  the  stove.  At  its  entrance  into  the  chimney,  a  perforated  collar 
should  separate  it  from  the  stove-pipe 

*  Ventilation  is  change  of  air,  and,  unless  scientifically  arranged,  and 
especially  unless  the  incoming  volume  of  air  be  warmed  in  cold  weather, 
such  change  of  atmosphere  means  cold  currents,  with  their  attendant  train 
of  catarrhs,  bronchitis,  neuralgia,  rheumatism,  and  all  the  evils  that  spring 
from  these  diseases.  The  raw,  damp,  frosty  air  of  our  ever-changing  winter 
temperature  ought  not  to  have  uncontrolled  and  constant  ingress  to  our 
dwellings.  Air  out-of-doors  is  suited  to  out-of-door  habits.  It  is  healthy 
and  bracing  when  the  body  is  coated  and  wrapped,  and  prepared  to  meet 
it,  and  when  exercise  can  be  taken  to  keep  up  the  circulation ;  but  to  live 
under  cover  is  to  live  artificially,  and  such  essential  conditions  must  be 
observed  as  suit  an  abnormal  state.  All  the  evils  attaching  to  ventila- 
tion, as  it  is  generally  effected,  spring  from  the  neglect  of  this  consist- 
ency.— Westminster  Rewew. 

t '  This  plan  has  been  adopted  in  the  newer  school-buildings  of  Elmira, 
N.  Y.  The  older  buildings  were  provided  with  ventilating-pipes,  not  heated 
artificially,  and  hence  of  no  service.  These  pipes  are  rendered  effective, 
however,  by  conducting  them  into  a  small  room  in  the  garret,  heated  by  a 


&1,92.]  HOW     SHALL     WE     VENTILATE?  93 

or  the  ventilating-pipe  be  itself  conveyed  through 
the  center  of  the  larger  chimney-flue.  If  the  register 
for  hot  air  be  on  the  floor  at  one  side  of  the  room, 
two  or  more  ventilators  may  be  placed  near  the  floor 
on  the  opposite  side.  The  warm  air  will  thus  make 
the  complete  circuit  of  the  room,  and  thoroughly 
warm  it  before  passing  out. 

If  the  ventilating-shaft  be  not  heated  artificially, 
the  ventilator  must  be  placed  at  the  top  of  the  room 
in  order  that  the  hot  air  may  escape  through  it,  thus 
producing  an  upward  draught.  But  the  objection  to 
this  method  is  that  it  allows  the  warmer  air  to 
escape,  while  economy  requires  that  the  cooler  air 
at  the  bottom  of  the  room  should  be  removed  and 
the  warm  air  be  made  to  descend,  thus  securing 
uniformity  of  temperature. 

4.  In  the  summer,  ventilation  may  be  commonly 
provided  for  by  opening  windows  at  the  top  and  the 
bottom,  on  the  sheltered  side  of  the  building,  so  as  to 
avoid  draughts  of  air  injurious  to  the  occupants.  On 
a  dull,  still,  hot  day,  when  there  is  little  difference 
of  temperature  between  the  inner-  and  the  outer  air, 
ventilation  can  be  secured  only  by  having  a  fire  pro- 
vided in  the  ventilating-shaft ;  this,  by  exhausting 
the  air  from  the  room,  will  cause  a  fresh  current  to 

coal-stove.  From  this  room,  a  large  exit-pipe  leads  to  the  roof,  where  it 
terminates  in  an  Emerson's  ventilator.  So  strong  a  draught  is  thus  estab- 
lished that  throughout  the  building  air  is  taken  from  the  floors,  and 
consequently  the  cooler  portion  of  th.e  rooms,  at  a  velocity  of  three  to 
five  feet  per  second  or  one  hundred  and  eighty  to  three  hundred  cubic 
feet  per  minute  for  each  square  foot  of  flue-opening.  In  perpendicular 
flues,  heated  throughout  with  a  smoke-flue  from  the  furnace,  ten  feet  per 
second  is  attained. 


94  RESPIRATION     AND     THE     VOICE.  [92,93. 

pour  in  through  the  open  windows.  At  recess,  all 
the  children  should,  if  the  weather  permit,  be  sent 
out-of-doors,  to  allow  their  clothing  to  be  exposed  to 
the  purifying  influence  of  the  open  air ;  meantime, 
the  windows  should  be  thrown  wide  open,  that  the 
room  may  be  thoroughly  ventilated  during  their  ab- 
sence. In  bad  weather,  rapid  marching  or  calisthenic 
exercises  will  furnish  exercise,  and  also  permit  the 
airing  of  the  room. 

5.  The  school  and  the  church  are  the  centers  for 
spreading    contagious    diseases.      The    former    offers 
especially  dangerous  facilities  for  scattering  disease- 
germs.      Great   pains,   therefore,   should  be  taken  to 
exclude  pupils  attacked  by  or  recovering  from  diph- 
theria, scarlet-fever,  whooping-cough,  etc.,  and  even 
those  who  live  in  houses  where  such  sickness  exists. 

6.  In   our  houses,*   open   fire-places   are   efficient 
ventilators,  and  they  should  never  be  closed  for  any 
cause.     Fresh  air  admitted  by  a  hot-air  register  and 
impure  air   passed   out  by  a  chimney,  form  a  simple 
and  thorough   system.     Our  sleeping-apartments  de- 
mand especial  care.     As  soon  as  the  occupants  leave 
the  room,   the  bed-clothes   should   be   removed,   and 

*  The  air  of  our  homes  is  often  contaminated  "by  decaying  vegetables 
and  other  filth  in  the  cellar ;  by  bad  air  drawn  up  from  the  soil  into  the 
cellar,  by  the  powerful  draughts  that  our  fires  create ;  by  defective  gas  and 
waste  pipes  that  let  the  foul  air  from  cess-p  ol  or  sewer  spread  through  the 
house ;  and  by  piles  of  refuse,  or  puddles  of  slops  emptied  at  the  back-door. 
Too  often,  also,  the  water  in  our  wells,  or  in  the  streams  that  supply  our 
towns  and  cities,  receives  the  drainage  from  out-houses  and  barn-yards,  and 
so  introduces  into  our  systems,  in  the  liquid— and  thus  easily-assimilated— 
form,  the  most  dangerous  poisons.  The  question  of  sanitary  precautions  is 
one  that  presses  upon  every  observant  mind,  and  demands  constant  and 
thoughtful  attention.  (See  p.  305.) 


93.]  WONDERS     OF     RESPIRATION.  95 

laid  on  the  backs  of  chairs  to  air ;  the  bed  be  shaken 
up ;  and  the  windows  thrown  open.  In  the  summer, 
the  windows  may  be  closed  before  the  sun  is  high ; 
the  house  is  then  left  filled  with  the  cool  morning 
air.  In  damp  and  cold  weather,  a  fire  should  be 
lighted  in  sleeping-apartments,  particularly  if  used 
by  children  *  or  delicate  persons,  to  dry  the  bed-cloth- 
ing, and  also  to  prevent  a  chill  on  the  part  of  the 
occupants.  It  is  not  necessary  to  go  shivering  to  bed 
in  order  to  harden  one's  constitution.  (y 

Wonders  of  Respiration. — The  perfection  of  the 
organs  of  respiration  challenges  our  admiration.  So 
delicate  are  they  that  the  least  pressure  would  cause 
exquisite  pain,  yet  tons  of  air  surge  to  and  fro  through 
their  intricate  passages,  and  bathe  their  innermost 
cells.  We  yearly  perform  at  least  seven  million  acts 
of  breathing,  inhaling  one  hundred  thousand  cubic 
feet  of  air,  and  purifying  over  three  thousand  five 
hundred  tons  of  blood.  This  gigantic  process  goes 
on  constantly,  never  wearies  or  worries  us,  and  we 
wonder  at  it  only  when  science  reveals  to  us  its 
magnitude.  In  addition,  by  a  wise  economy,  the 
process  of  respiration  is  made  to  subserve  a  second 

*  In  winter,  children  should  always  be  given  a  moderately  warm,  well- 
ventilated  bedroom,  with  light,  fleecy  bed-coverings.  Says  a  recent  English 
writer  :  "  The  loving  care  which  prescribes  for  children  a  cold  bedroom 
and  a  hot,  sweltering  bed  is  of  the  nature  that  kills.  Buried  in  blankets, 
their  delicate  skins  become  overheated  and  relaxed,  while  they  are  irritated 
by  perspiration ;  at  the  same  time,  the  most  delicate  tissues  of  all,  in  the 
lungs,  are  dealing  with  air  abnormally  frigid.  The  poor  little  victims  of 
combined  ignorance  and  kindness  thus  toss  and  dream,  feverish  and 
troubled,  under  a  mass  of  bed-clothes,  while  the  well-meaning  mother, 
soothed  by  a  bedroom-fire,  slumbers  peacefully  through  this  working  out 
uf  the  sad  process  of  the  'survival  of  the  fittest. '" 


96 


RESPIRATION     AND     THE     VOICE. 


[93,  94. 


use  no  less  important,  and  the  air  we  exhale,  passing 
through  the  organs  of  voice,  is  transformed  into 
prayers  of  faith,  songs  of  hope,  and  words  of  social 
cheer. 

FIG.  33. 


A,  the  natural  position  of  the  internal  organs.  B,  when,  deformed  by  tight 
lacing.  Marshall  says  that  the  liver  and  the  stomach  have,  in  this  way,  been  forced 
downward  almost  as  low  as  the 


Diseases,  etc.  —  1.  Constriction  of  the  Lungs  is 
produced  by  tight  clothing.  The  ribs  are  thus  forced 
inward,  the  size  of  the  chest  is  diminished,  and  the 
amount  of  inhaled  air  decreased.  Stiff  clothing,  and 
especially  a  garment  that  will  not  admit  of  a  full 
breath  without  inconvenience,  will  prevent  that  free 
movement  of  the  ribs  so  essential  to  health.  Anv 


94,05.]  DISEASES,     ETC.  97 

infraction  of  the  laws  of  respiration,  even  though  it 
be  fashionable,  will  result  in  diminished  vitality  and 
vigor,  and  will  be  fearfully  punished  by  sickness  and 
weakness  through  the  whole  life. 

2.  Bronchitis  (br6n-ki/-tis)  is  an  inflammation  (see 
Inflammation)  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  bron- 
chial tubes.     It  is  accompanied  by  an  increased  se- 
cretion of  mucus,  and  consequent  coughing. 

3.  Pleurisy  is  an  inflammation  of  the  pleura.     It 
is  sometimes  caused   by  an  injury  to  the  ribs,  and 
results  in  a  secretion  of  water  within  the  membrane. 

4.  Pneumonia  (pneuma,  breath)  is  an  inflamma- 
tion of  the  lungs,  affecting  chiefly  the  air-cells. 

5.  Consumption  is  a  disease   which   destroys  the 
substance  of  the  lungs.     Like  other  lung  difficulties, 
it  is  caused  largely  by  a  want  of  pure  air,  a  liberal 
supply  of  which   is  the  best  treatment  that  can  be 
prescribed  for  it.* 

6.  Asphyxia     (as-fixM-a). —  When     a    person    is 
drowned,  strangled,  or  choked  in   any  way,  what  is 
called  asphyxia  occurs.      The  face  turns  black ;  the 
veins    become    turgid ;    insensibility  and    often    con- 
vulsions ensue.    If  relief  is  not  secured  within  a  few 
minutes,  death  will  be  inevitable.!      (See  p.  264.) 


*  If  I  were  seriously  ill  of  consumption,  I  would  live  out-doors  day 
and  night,  except  in  rainy  weather  or  mid- winter;  then  I  would  sleep  in 
an  unplastered  log-house.  Physic  has  no  nutriment,  gaspings  for  air  can 
not  cure  you,  monkey  capers  in  a  gymnasium  can  not  cure  you,  stimulants 
can  not  cure  you.  What  consumptives  want  is  pure  air,  not  physic,  plenty 
of  meat  and  plenty  of  bread.— DB.  MARSHALL  HALL. 

t  The  lack  of  oxygen,  and  the  presence  of  carbonic-acid  gas,  are  the 
combined  causes.  Oxygen  starvation  and  carbonic-acid  poisoning,  each 
fatal  in  itself,  work  together  to  destroy  life. 


98  RESPIRATION     AND     THE     VOICE.  [95,96. 

7.  Diphtheria   (diphthera,   a  membrane)    is   char- 
acterized   by    fever,    debility,    and    a    peculiar    sore 
throat,  in  which   exuding   fibrinous  matter  forms  a 
grayish   white    membrane,   which   afterward    decom- 
poses with   a  fetid  odor.      Its  sudden  and  insidious 
approach,  contagious  character,  and  frequent  fatality, 
render  it  an  exceedingly  dreaded   disease.      A  diph- 
theritic   patient    should    be   quarantined,    and   every 
thing  connected  with  the  sick-room  thoroughly  dis- 
infected. 

8.  Croup,  which  often  attacks  young  children,  is 
an   inflammation   of   the   mucous   membrane   of   the 
larynx  and  trachea.      It  is  commonly  preceded  by  a 
cold.      The  child  sneezes,  coughs,  and  is  hoarse,  but 
the  attack   frequently  comes  on   suddenly,  and  usu- 
ally in  the  night.      It  is  accompanied  by  a  peculiar 
"  brassy,"    ringing    cough,    which,    once    heard,    can 
never  be  mistaken.    It  may  prove  fatal  within  a  few 
hours.     (See  p.  260.) 

9.  Stammering    depends,  not   on   defects    of    the 
muscles,  but  on  a  want  of  due  control  of  the  mind. 
When  a  stammerer  is  not  too  conscious  of  his  lack, 
and  tries  to  form  his  words  slowly,  he  speaks  plainly, 
and   may  sing  well,  for   then   his  words  must  follow 
one   another  in  rhythmic   time.     Many  persons  who 
stammer    in    common    conversation    can    talk    with 
fluency    when    making    a    speech.      The    stammerer 
should  seek  to  discover  the   cause  of  his  difficulty, 
and  to  overcome  it  by  vocal  and  respiratory  exercise, 
especially  by  speaking  only  after  a   full   inspiration, 
and  during  a  long,  slow  expiration. 


96,97.]  PRACTICAL     QUESTIONS.  99 


PRACTICAL     QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  the  philosophy  of  "the  change  of  voice"  in  a  boy? 

2.  Why  can  we  see  our  breath  on  a  frosty  morning? 

3.  When  a  law  of  health  and  a  law  of  fashion  conflict,  which  should 
we  obey? 

4.  If  we  use  a   "bunk"   bed,  should  we  pack  away  the  clothes  when 
we  first  rise  in  the  morning? 

5.  Why  should  a  clothes-press  be  well  ventilated? 

6.  Should   the   weight   of   our    clothing  hang  from  the  waist,  or  the 
shoulder  ? 

7.  Describe  the  effects  of  living  in  an  overheated  room. 

8.  What  habits  impair  the  power  of  the  lungs? 

9.  For  full,  easy  breathing  in  singing,  should  we  use  the  diaphragm 
and  lower  ribs,  or  the  upper  ribs  alone? 

10.  Why  is  it  better  to  breathe  through  the  nose  than  the  mouth? 

11.  Why  should  not  a  speaker  talk  while   returning  home   on   a  cold 
night  after  a  lecture? 

12.  What  part  of  the  body  needs  the  loosest  clothing? 

13.  What  part  needs  the  warmest? 

14.  Why  is  a  "spare  bed"  generally  unhealthful? 

15.  Is  there  any  good  in  sighing? 

16.  Should  a  hat  be  thoroughly  ventilated?     How? 

17.  Why  do  the  lungs  of  people  who  live  in  cities  become  of  a  gray 
color? 

18.  How  would   you   convince   a  person   that    a    bedroom    should    be 
aired?* 

19.  What  persons  are  most  liable  to  catarrhs,  consumption,  etc.? 

20.  If  a  person  is  plunged  under  water,  will  it  enter  his  lungs? 

21.  Are  bed-curtains  healthful? 

22.  Why  do  some  people  take  "  short  breaths "  after  a  meal  ? 

23.  What  is  the  special  value  of  public  parks? 

24.  Can  a  person  become  used  to  bad  air,  so  that  it  will  not  injure  him  ? 

25.  Why  do  we  gape  when  we  are  sleepy? 

26.  Is  a  fashionable  waist  a  model  of  art  in  sculpture  or  painting? 

27.  Should  a  fire-place  be  closed?! 


*  "  If  the  condensed  breath  collected  on  the  cool  window-panes  of  a  room  where 
a  number  of  persons  have  been  assembled,  be  burned,  a  smell  as  of  singed  hair  will  show 
the  presence  of  organic  matter;  and  if  the  condensed  breath  be  allowed  to  remain  on  the 
windows  for  a  few  days,  it  will  be  found,  on  examination  by  the  microscope,  that  it  is 
alive  with  animalculae." 

t  Thousands  of  lives  would  be  saved  if  all  fire-places  were  kept  open.  If  you  are 
so  fortunate  as  to  have  a  fire-place  in  your  room,  paint  it  when  not  in  use,  put  a  bouquet 
of  fresh  flowers  in  it  every  morning,  if  you  please,  or  do  any  thing  to  make  it  attractive, 


100  KESPIKATION     AND     THE     VOICE.  [97,98. 

28.  Why  does  embarrassment  or  fright  cause  a  stammerer   to   stutter 
still  more  painfully? 

29.  In  the  organs  of  voice,  what  parts  have  somewhat  the  same  effect 
as  the  case  of  a  violin  and  the  sounding-board  of  a  piano  ? 

30.  Why  should  we  be  careful  not  to  "  take  the  breath  of  a  sick  per- 
son"? 

31.  What  special  care  should  be  taken  with  regard  to  keeping  a  cellar 
clean? 

32.  How  is  the  air  strained  as  it  passes  into  the  lungs? 

33.  Can  one  really  "draw  the  air  into  his  lungs"? 

34.  How  often  do  we  breathe? 

35.  Describe  some  approved  method  of  ventilation. 

36.  What  is  at  once  the  floor  of  the  chest  and  the  roof  of  the  abdomen  ? 

37.  What  would  you  do  in  a  case  of  apparent  death  by  drowning,  or  by 
coal-gas?     (See  p.  264.) 

38.  What   would   you   do   in   a   case   of   croup,    while   the   doctor   was 
coming?     (See  p.  260.) 

39.  How  would  you  treat  a  severe  burn  ?     (See  p.  257.) 

40.  Describe  the  various  ways  in  which  the  water  in  a  well  is  liable  to 
become  unwholesome. 

V 


but  never  close  it ;  better  use  the  fire-boards  for  kindling-wood.  It  would  be  scarcely 
less  absurd  to  take  a  piece  of  elegantly-tinted  court-plaster  and  stop  up  the  nose, 
trusting  to  the  accidental  opening  and  shutting  of  the  mouth  for  fresh  air,  because  you 
thought  it  spoiled  the  looks  of  your  face  to  have  two  such  great,  ugly  holes  in  it,  than 
to  stop  your  fire-place  with  elegantly-tinted  paper,  or  a  Japanese  fan,  because  it  looks 
better.— LEEDS. 


V. 

THE  CIRCULATION. 


"  No  rest  this  throbbing  slave  may  ask, 
Forever  quivering  o'er  his  task, 
While  far  and  wide  a  crimson  jet 
Leaps  forth  to  fill  the  woven  net, 
Which  in  unnumber'd  crossing  tides 
The  flood  of  burning  life  divides, 
Then,  kindling  each  decaying  part, 
Creeps  back  to  find  the  throbbing  heart." 

HOLMES. 


ANALYSIS   OF   THE   CIRCULATION. 


1.  THE  BLOOD. 


1.  Its  Composition. 

2.  Its  Uses. 

3.  Transfusion. 

4.  Coagulation. 


2.  ORGANS  OF  THE  CIR- 
CULATION. 


1.  The 

Heart.  1 


2.  The 
Arteries. 


3.  The 

Veins. 


1.  Description. 

2.  Movements. 

3.  Auricles  and  Ventricles. 

Need  of. 


4.  The  Valves. 


b.  Tricuspid  and   Bi- 

cuspid. 

c.  The  Strengthening 

of  the  V  alves. 

d.  Semi-lunar  Valves. 


1.  Description. 

2.  The  Arterial  System. 

3.  The  Pulse. 

1.  General  Description. 

2.  Valves. 


3.  THE  CIRCULATION.. 


4.  The       (  1.  Description. 
Capilla-  «  2.  Cfc. 
ries.      (  3.  ZTm&r  Me  Microscope. 

1.  The  Lesser. 

2.  The  Greater. 

3.  The  Velocity  of  the  Blood. 


4.  THE  HEAT  OF  THE    1 1.  Distribution. 

BODY.  I  2.  Regulation. 

5.  LIFE  BY  DEATH. 

6.  CHANGE  OF  OUR  BODIES. 

7.  THE  THREE  VITAL  ORGANS. 

8.  WONDERS  OF  THE  HEART. 


9.  THE  LYMPHATIC 
CIRCULATION. 


10.  DISEASES 


11.  ALCOHOLIC  DRINKS 
AND  NARCOTICS. 


1.  Description. 

2.  The  Glands. 

3.  The  Lymph. 

4.  The  Office  of  the  Lymphatics. 

1.  Congestion. 

2.  Inflammation. 

3.  Bleeding. 

4.  Scrofula. 

5.  A  Cold. 

6.  Catarrh. 

1.  Effect  of  Alcohol  upon  the  Circulation. 

2.  Effect  of  Alcohol  upon  the  Heart. 

3.  Effect  of  Alcohol  upon  the  Membrane. 

4.  Effect  of  Alcohol  upon  the  Blood. 

5.  Effect  of  Alcohol  upon  the  Lungs. 


THE    CIRCULATION 


The  Organs  of  the  Circulation  are  the  heart,  the 
arteries,  the  veins,  and  the  capillaries. 

The  Blood  is  the  liquid  by  means  of  which  the 
circulation  is  effected.  It  permeates  every  part  of 
the  body,  except  the  cuticle,  nails,  hair,  etc.  The 

FIG.  35. 


A,  corpuscles  of  human  Wood,  highly  magnified ;  B,  corpuscles  in  the  blood  of  an 
animal  (a  non-mammal). 

average  quantity  in  each  person  is  about  eighteen 
pounds.*  It  is  composed  of  a  thin,  colorless  liquid, 
the  plasma,  filled  with  red  disks  or  cells, f  so  small 

*  It  is  difficult  to  estimate  the  exact  amount,  and  therefore  authorities 
disagree.  Foster  places  it  at  about  one  thirteenth  of  the  body-weight. 

t  There  is  also  one  white  globular  cell  to  every  three  or  four  hundred 
red  ones.  The  blood  is  no  more  red  than  the  water  of  a  stream  would  be 
if  you  were  to  fill  it  with  little  red  fishes.  Suppose  the  fishes  to  be  very, 
very  small  — as  small  as  a  grain  of  sand  — and  closely  crowded  together 
through  the  whole  depth  of  the  stream ;  the  water  would  look  quite  red, 
would  it  not?  And  this  is  the  way  in  which  blood  looks  red— only  observe 


106  THE     CIRCULATION.  [104. 

that  about  three  thousand  five  hundred  placed  side 
by  side  would  measure  only  an  inch,  and  it  would 
take  sixteen  thousand  laid  flatwise  upon  one  another 
to  make  a  column  of  that  height.  Under  the  micro- 
scope, they  are  found  to  be  rounded  at  the  edge  and 
concave  on  both  sides.*  They  have  a  tendency  to 
collect  in  piles  like  rolls  of  coin.  The  size  and  shape 
vary  in  the  blood  of  different  animals,  f  Disks  are 
continually  forming  in  the  blood,  and  as  constantly 
dying — twenty  millions  at  every  breath. — DRAPER. 
The  plasma  also  contains  fibrin, J  albumen — which 


one  thing;  a  grain  of  sand  is  a  mountain  in  comparison  •with  the  little 
red  fishes  in  the  blood.  If  I  were  to  tell  you  they  measured  about  :!-,'(,n  <>t' 
an  inch  in  diameter,  you  would  not  be  much  wiser ;  so  I  prefer  saying  (by 
way  of  giving  you  a  more  perfect  idea  of  their  minuteness)  that  there 
would  be  about  a  million  in  such  a  drop  of  blood  as  would  hang  on  the 
point  of  a  needle.  I  say  so  on  the  authority  of  a  scientific  microscopist — 
M.  Bouillet.  Not  that  he  has  ever  counted  them,  as  you  may  suppose,  any 
more  than  I  have  done ;  but  this  is  as  near  an  approach  as  can  be  made 
by  calculation  to  the  size  of  33*00  part  of  an  inch  in  diameter. — JEA.N  MACE. 

*  By  pricking  the  end  of  the  finger  with  a  needle,  we  can  obtain  a 
drop  for  examination.  Place  it  on  the  slide,  cover  with  a  glass,  and  put 
it  at  once  under  the  microscope.  The  red  disks  will  be  seen  to  group 
themselves  in  rows,  while  the  white  disks  will  seem  to  draw  apart,  and 
to  be  constantly  changing  their  form.  After  a  gradual  evaporation,  the 
crystals  (Fig.  36)  may  be  seen.  In  animals,  they  have  various,  though 
distinctive  forms. 

t  Authorities  differ  greatly  in  their  estimate  of  the  size  of  the  disks 
(corpuscles)  in  human  blood.  The  fact  is  that  the  size  varies  in  different 
persons,  probably  also  in  the  same  individual.  Many  of  the  best  micro- 
scopists  therefore  hesitate  to  state  whether  a  particular  specimen  of  blood 
belonged  to  a  human  being  or  to  an  animal.  Others  claim  that  they  can 
distinguish  with  accuracy.  Evidently,  the  question  is  one  of  great  un- 
certainty. The  following  statement  of  the  size  of  the  cells  in  different 
animals  is  taken  from  Gulliver's  tables :  Cat,  «V?  of  an  inch  in  diameter ; 
whale,  3^0  ;  mouse,  3^ »  hog,  f^sn >  camel,  3^3 ;  sheep,  sJts »  horse,  55*05 » 
Virginia  deer,  5J^;  dog-faced  baboon,  s-4Vi ;  brown  baboon,  gA3;  red 
monkey,  33*95 ;  black  monkey,  3^. 

$  It  is  usual  to  say  that  fibrin  is  contained  in  the  blood.  It  probably 
does  not  exist  as  such,  but  there  are  present  in  the  blood  certain  sub- 


104-106.] 


USES     OF     THE     BLOOD. 


107 


FIG.  36. 


is  found  nearly  pure  in  the  white  of  an  egg — and 
various  mineral  substances,  as  iron,*  lime,  magnesia, 
phosphorus,  potash,  etc. 

Uses  of  the  Blood.  —  The  blood  has  been  called 
"  liquid  flesh " ;  but  it  is  more  than  that,  since  it 
contains  the  materials 
for  making  every  or- 
gan. The  plasma  is 
rich  in  mineral  matter 
for  the  bones,  and  in 
albumen  for  the  mus- 
cles. The  red  disks 
are  the  air-cells  of  the 
blood.  They  contain 
the  oxygen  so  essential 
to  every  operation  of 
life.  Wherever  there 
is  work  to  be  done  or  Blood  GrystaU' 

repairs  to  be  made,  there  the  oxygen  is  needed.  It 
stimulates  to  action,  and  tears  down  all  that  is  worn 
out.  In  this  process,  it  combines  with  and  actually 
burns  out  parts  of  the  muscles  and  other  tissues,  as 
wood  is  burned  in  the  stove,  f  The  blood,  now  foul 


stances  known  as  paragtobulin  and  fibrinogen,  which,  by  the  action  of  a  third 
substance,  fibrin-ferment,  under  certain  circumstances,  form  fibrin  and  so 
cause  coagulation.  The  exact  nature  of  the  process  by  which  fibrin  is 
produced  by  these  three  factors  is  not  understood.— See  FOSTEK'S  Text  Book 
of  Physiology,  p.  22. 

*  Enough  iron  has  been  found  in  the  ashes  of  a  burned  body  to  form 
a  mourning  ring. 

t  For  the  sake  of  simplicity,  perhaps  to  conceal  our  own  ignorance,  we 
call  this  process  "burning."  The  simile  of  a  fire  is  good  so  far  as  it  goes. 
But  as  to  the  real  nature  of  the  change  which  the  physiologist  briefly 
terms  "oxidation,"  we  know  nothing.  This  much  only  can  be  asserted 


108  THE     CIRCULATION.  [105,106. 

with  the  burned  matter,  the  refuse  of  this  fire,  is 
caught  up  by  the  circulation,  and  whirled  back  to 
the  lungs,  where  it  is  purified,  and  again  sent  bound- 
ing on  its  way. 

There  are,  then,  two  different  kinds  of  the  blood  in 
the  body :  the  red  or  arterial,  and  the  dark  or  venous. 

Transfusion. — As  the  blood  is  really  the  "vital 
fluid,"  it  would  seem  that  feeble  persons  might  be 
restored  to  vigor  by  infusing  healthy  blood  into  their 
veins.  This  hypothesis,  so  valuable  in  its  possible 

positively.  A  stream  of  oxygen  is  carried  by  the  blood  to  the  muscles  (in 
fact  to  every  tissue  in  the  body),  while,  from  the  muscles  the  blood  carries 
away  a  stream  of  carbonic  acid  and  water.  But  what  takes  place  in  the 
muscles,  when  and  what  chemical  change  occurs,  no  one  can  tell.  We  see 
the  first  and  the  last  stage.  We  know  that  contraction  of  the  muscles 
somehow  comes  about,  oxygen  disappears,  carbonic  acid  appears,  energy  is 
released,  and  force  is  exhibited  as  motion,  heat,  and  electricity.  But  the 
intermediate  step  is  hidden. 

There  are  certain  theories  advanced,  however,  that  are  worth  consid- 
ering. Some  physiologists  hold  that  the  muscle  has  the  power  of  taking 
up  the  oxygen  from  the  hcemaglobin  (a  body  that  comprises  ninety  per  cent, 
of  the  red  corpuscles  when  dried,  and  is  the  oxygen-carrier  of  the  blood), 
and  fixing  it,  as  well  as  the  raw  material  (food)  furnished  by  the  blood, 
thus  forming  a  true  contractile  substance.  The  breaking-down  or  decompo- 
sition of  this  contractile  substance  in  the  muscle,  sets  free  its  potential 
energy.  The  process  is  gentle  so  long  as  the  muscle  is  at  rest,  but  becomes 
excessive  and  violent  when  contraction  occurs.  (See  "  Foster's  Physiology," 
p.  118.)  It  is  also  believed  by  some  that  the  chemical  change  in  the  muscle 
partakes  of  a  f ermentive  character ;  that,  under  the  influence  of  the  proper 
ferments,  the  substances  break  up  into  other  and  simpler  products,  thus 
setting  free  heat  and  force ;  and  that  this  chemical  change  is  followed  by 
a  secondary  oxidation  by  the  oxygen  in  the  arterial  blood,  thereby  forming 
carbonic  acid  and  water,  as  in  all  putrefactive  processes.  But  these  and 
other  views  are  not  as  yet  fully  understood ;  while  they  utterly  fail  to  tell 
us  how  a  collection  of  simple  cells,  filled  merely  with  a  semi-fluid  mass  of 
matter,  can  contract  and  set  free  muscular  power.  The  commonness  of 
this  act  hides  from  us  its  wonderful  nature.  But  here,  hidden  in  the  cell — 
Nature's  tiny  laboratory— lies  the  mystery  of  life.  Before  its  closed  door 
we  ponder  in  vain,  confessing  the  unskillfulness  of  our  labor,  and  fearing 
all  the  while  lest  the  Secret  of  the  Cell  will  always  elude  our  search. 


100,107.]  COAGULATION.        .  109 

results  in  prolonging  human  life,  has  been  carefully 
tested.  Animals  which  have  ceased  to  breathe  have 
thus  had  their  vitality  recalled.  In  the  seventeenth 
century  the  theory  became  a  subject  of  special  in- 
vestigation. A  maniac  was  restored  to  reason  by  the 
blood  of  a  calf,  and  the  most  extravagant  hopes 
were  entertained.  But  many  fatal  accidents  occur- 
ring, experiments  upon  human  beings  were  forbidden 
by  law,  and  transfusion  soon  fell  into  disuse.  It  has, 
however,  been  successfully  practiced  in  several  cases 
within  the  last  few  years,  and  is  a  method  still  in 
repute  for  saving  life. 

Coagulation. — When  blood  is  exposed  to  the  air, 
it  coagulates.  This  is  caused  by  the  solidifying  of 
the  fibrin,  which,  entangling  the  disks,  forms  the 
"clot."  The  remaining  clear,  yellow  liquid  is  the 
serum.  The  value  of  this  peculiar  property  of  the 
blood  can  hardly  be  overestimated.  The  coagula- 
tion soon  checks  all  ordinary  cases  of  bleeding.* 
When  a  wound  is  made,  and  bleeding  commences, 
the  fibrin  forms  a  temporary  plug,  as  it  were,  which 
is  absorbed  when  the  healing  process  is  finished. 
Thus  we  see  how  a  Divine  foresight  has  provided 
not  only  for  the  ordinary  wants  of  the  body,  but 
also  for  the  accidents  to  which  it  is  liable. f 

*  In  the  case  of  the  lower  animals,  which  have  no  means  of  stopping 
hemorrhages  as  we  have,  the  coagulation  is  generally  still  more  rapid.  In 
some  species  of  birds  it  takes  place  almost  instantaneously. 

t  The  fibrin  is  not  an  essential  ingredient  of  the  blood.  All  the  func- 
tions of  life  are  regularly  performed  in  people  whose  blood  lacks  fibrin; 
and,  in  cases  of  transfusion,  where  blood  deprived  of  its  fibrin  was  used, 
the  vivifying  influence  seemed  to  be  the  same.  Its  office,  therefore,  must 
mainly  be  to  stanch  any  hemorrhage  which  may  occur.— FLINT. 


FIG.  37. 


110  THE     CIRCULATION.       .  [107-109. 

-A 

The  Heart  is  the  engine  which  propels  the  blood. 
It  is  a  hollow,  pear-shaped  muscle,  about  the  size  of 

the  fist.  It  hangs, 
point  downward, 
just  to  the  left  of 
the  center  of  the 
chest.  (See  Fig. 
31.)  It  is  inclosed 
in  a  loose  sac  of 
serous  membrane,* 
called  the  pericar- 
dium (peri,  about ; 
and  kardia,  the 
heart).  This  se- 
cretes a  lubricating 
fluid,  and  is  smooth 
as  satin. 

The  Movements 
of  the  Heart  con- 
sist of  an  alternate 
contraction  and  ex- 
pansion. The  former  is  called  the  sys'-to-le,  and  the 
latter  the  di-as'-to-le.  During  the  diastole,  the  blood 

*  The  mucous  membrane  lines  the  open  cavities  of  the  body;  the 
serous,  the  closed.  The  pericardium  is  a  sac  composed  of  two  layers  — a 
fibrous  membrane  on  the  outside,  and  a  serous  one  on  the  inside.  The 
latter  covers  the  external  surface  of  the  heart,  and  is  reflected  back  upon 
itself  in  order  to  form,  like  all  the  membranes  of  this  nature,  a  sac  without 
an  opening.  The  heart  is  thus  covered  by  the  pericardial  sac,  but  not  con- 
tained inside  its  cavity.  A  correct  idea  may  be  formed  of  the  disposition 
of  the  pericardium  around  the  heart  by  recalling  a  very  common  and  very 
convenient,  though  now  discarded  head-dress,  the  cotton  night-cap.  The 
pericardium  incloses  the  heart  exactly  as  this  cap  covered  the  heads  of 
our  forefathers.— Wonders  of  the  Human  Body. 


The  Heart.    A,  the  right  ventricle;  B,  the  left  ventricle; 
C,  the  right  auricle ;  D,  the  left  auricle. 


109,  110.] 


AURICLES     AND     VENTRICLES. 


Ill 


FIG.  38. 


flows  into  the  heart,  to  be  expelled  by  the  systole. 
The  alternation  of  these  movements  constitutes  the 
beating  of  the  heart 
which  we  hear  so 
distinctly  between  the 
fifth  and  sixth  ribs.* 
The  Auricles  and 
Ventricles.  —  The 
heart  is  divided  into 
four  chambers.  In 
an  adult,  each  holds 
about  a  wine-glassful. 
The  upper  ones,  from 
appendages  on  the 
outside  resembling 
the  ears  of  a  dog,  are 

Called  auricles  (aureS, 
ears)  ;  the  lower  Ones 
are  termed  Ventricles. 

The  auricle  and  ven- 
tricle on  each  side  communicate  with  each  other,  but 
the  right  and  left  halves  of  the  heart  are  entirely 
distinct,  and  perform  different  offices.  The  left  side 
propels  the  red  blood;  and  the  right,  the  dark. 


*  Two  sounds  are  heard  if  we  put  our  ear  over  the  heart,— the  first  and 
longer  as  the  blood  is  leaving  the  organ,  the  second  as  it  falls  into  the 
pockets  of  the  two  arteries,  and  the  valves  then  striking  together  cause  it. 
The  first  sound  is  mainly  the  noise  made  by  the  muscular  tissue.  During 
the  first,  the  two  ventricles  contract;  during  the  second,  the  two  auricles 
do  so.  The  hand  may  feel  the  heart  striking  the  ribs  as  it  contracts,— a 
feeling  called  the  impulse,  or,  if  quicker  and  stronger  than  usual,  palpita- 
tion. This  is  not  always  a  sign  of  disease,  but  in  hypochondriacs  is  often 
an  effect  of  the  mind  on  the  nerves  of  the  heart.— MAPOTHEB. 


Chambers  of  the  Heart.  A,  right  ventricle; 
B,  left  ventricle  ;  C,  right  auricle  ;  D,  left  au- 
ride;  E,  tricuspid  valve;  F,  bicuspid  valve; 
G,  semi-lunar  valves  ;  H,  valve  of  the  aorta  ; 
I,  inferior  vena  cam  ;  K,  superior  vena  cava  ; 
L,  Li,  pulmonary  veins. 


112  THE     CIRCULATION".  [110,111. 

The  auricles  are  merely  reservoirs  to  receive  the 
blood  (the  left  auricle,  as  it  filters  in  bright  and 
pure  from  the  lungs ;  the  right,  as  it  returns  dark 
and  foul  from  the  tour  of  the  body),  and  to  furnish 
it  to  the  ventricles  as  they  need.  Their  work  being 
so  light,  their  walls  are  comparatively  thin  and  weak. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  ventricles  force  the  blood 
(the  left,  to  all  parts  of  the  body ;  the  right,  to  the 
lungs),  and  are,  therefore,  made  very  strong.  As  the 
left  ventricle  drives  the  blood  so  much  farther  than 
the  right,  it  is  correspondingly  thicker  and  stronger. 

Need  of  Valves  in  the  Heart.— As  the  auricles  do 
not  need  to  contract  with  much  force  simply  to 
empty  their  contents  into  the  ventricles  below  them, 
there  is  no  demand  for  any  special  contrivance  to 
prevent  the  blood  from  setting  back  the  wrong  way. 
Indeed,  it  would  naturally  run  down  into  the  ven- 
tricle, which  is  at  that  moment  open  to  receive  it. 
But,  when  the  strong  ventricles  contract,  especially 
the  left  one,  which  must  drive  the  blood  to  the  ex- 
tremities, some  arrangement  is  necessary  to  prevent 
it  from  returning  into  the  auricle.  Besides,  when 
they  expand,  the  "suction  power"  would  tend  to 
draw  back  again  from  the  arteries  all  the  blood  just 
forced  out.  This  difficulty  is  obviated  by  means  of 
little  doors,  or  valves,  which  will  not  let  it  go  the 

wrong  way.* 

^ 

*  The  heart  of  an  ox  or  a  sheep  may  be  used  to  show  the  chambers 
and  valves.  The  aorta  should  be  cut  as  far  as  possible  from  the  heart,  and 
then  by  pumping  in  water  the  perfection  of  these  valves  will  be  finely 
exhibited.  Cutting  the  heart  across  near  the  middle  will  show  the  greater 
thickness  of  the  left  ventricle. 


111,112.]     TRICUSPID    AND    BICUSPID    VALVES.      113 

s/ 

The    Tricuspid    and    Bicuspid    Valves. — At    the 

opening  into  the  right  ventricle,  is  a  valve  consisting 
of  three  folds  or  flaps  of  membrane,  whence  it  is 
called  the  tri-cuspid  valve  (tri,  three  ;  and  cuspides, 
points),  and  in  the  left  ventricle,  one  containing  two 
flaps,  and  named  the  bi-cuspid  valve.  These  hang 
so  loosely  as  to  oppose  no  resistance  to  the  passage 

FIG.  39. 


Diagram  showing  the  peculiar  Fibrous  Structure  of  the  Heart  and  the  Shape  of 
the  Valves.  A,  triscupid  valve ;  B,  bicuspid  valve ;  C,  semi-lunar  valves  of  the  aorta ; 
D,  semi-lunar  valves  of  the  pulmonary  artery. 

of  the  blood  into  the  ventricles ;  but,  if  any  attempts 
to  go  the  other  way,  it  gets  between  the  flaps  and 
the  walls  of  the  heart,  and,  driving  them  outward, 
closes  the  orifice. 

These  Flaps  are  Strengthened  like  sails  by  slen- 
der cords,  which  prevent  their  being  pressed  back 
through  the  opening.  If  the  cords  were  attached 
directly  to  the  walls  of  the  heart,  they  would  be 
loosened  in  the  systole,  and  so  become  useless  when 


114  THE     CIRCULATION. 

most  needed.  They  are,  therefore,  fastened  to  little 
muscular  pillars  projecting  from  the  sides  of  the 
ventricle ;  when  that  contracts,  the  pillars  contract 
also,  and  thus  the  cords  are  held  tight. 

The  Semi-lunar  Valves. — In  the  passages  outward 
from  the  ventricles,  are  valves,  called  from  their 
peculiar  half-moon  shape  semi-lunar  valves  (semi, 
half;  Luna,  Moon).  Each  consists  of  three  little 
pocket-shaped  folds  of  membrane,  with  their  open- 
ings in  the  direction  which  the  blood  is  to  take. 
When  it  sets  back,  they  fill,  and,  swelling  out,  close 
the  passage  (Fig.  40). 

The  Arteries*  are  the  tube-like  canals  which 
convey  the  blood  from  the  heart.  They  carry  the 
red  blood  (see  note,  p.  119).  They  are  composed  of 
an  elastic  tissue,  which  yields  at  every  throb  of  the 
heart,  and  then  slowly  contracting  again,  keeps  up 
the  motion  of  the  blood  until  the  next  systole.  The 
elasticity  of  the  arteries  acts  like  the  air-chamber  of 
a  fire-engine,  which  converts  the  intermittent  jerks 
of  the  brakes  or  pump  into  the  steady  stream  of  the 
hose-nozzle. 

The  arteries  sometimes  communicate  by  means  of 
branches  or  by  meshes  of  loops,  so  that  if  the  blood 
be  blocked  in  one,  it  can  pass  round  through  another, 
and  so  get  by  the  obstacle,  f  When  an  artery  pene- 

*  Aer,  air;  and  tereo,  I  contain— so  named  because  after  death  they 
contain  air  only,  and  hence  the  ancients  supposed  them  to  be  air-ttibes 
leading  through  the  body. 

t  This  occurs  especially  about  the  joints,  where  it  serves  to  maintain 
the  circulation  during  the  bending  of  a  limb,  or  when  the  main  artery  is 
obstructed  by  disease  or  injury,  or  has  been  tied  by  the  surgeon.  In  the 


113.114.]  THE    PULSE.  115 

trates  a  muscle,  it  is  often  protected  by  a  sheath  or 
by  fibrous  rings,  which  prevent  its  being  pulled  out 
of  place  or  compressed  by  the  play  of  the  muscles. 

The  arteries  are  generally  located  as  far  as  possible 
beneath  the  surface,  out  of  harm's  way,  and  hence 
are  found  closely  hugging  the  bones  or  creeping- 
through  safe  passages  provided  for  them.  They  are 
generally  nearly  straight,  and  take  the  shortest  routes 
to  the  parts  which  they  are  to  supply  with  blood. 

The  Arterial  System  starts  from  the  left  ventricle 
by  a  single  trunk — the  aorta — which,  after  giving  off 
branches  to  the  head,  sweeps  back  of  the  chest  with 
a  bold  curve — the  arch  of  the  aorta  (c,  Fig.  34) — and 
thence  runs  downward  (/),  dividing  and  subdividing, 
like  a  tree,  into  numberless  branches,  which,  at  last, 
penetrate  every  nook  and  corner  of  the  body. 

The  Pulse. — At  the  wrist  (k,  radial  artery)  and  on 
the  temple  (temporal  artery)  we  can  feel  the  expan- 
sion of  the  artery  by  each  little  wave  of  blood  set  in 
motion  by  the  contraction  of  the  heart.  In  health, 
there  are  about  seventy-two*  pulsations  per  minute. 
They  increase  with  excitement  or  inflammation, 
weaken  with  loss  of  vigor,  and  are  modified  by 

last  case,  the  small  adjacent  arteries  gradually  enlarge,  and  -form  what  is 
called  a  collateral  circulation. 

*  This  number  varies  much  with  age,  sex,  and  individuals.  Napoleon's 
pulse  is  said  to  have  been  only  forty,  while  it  is  not  infrequent  to  find  a 
healthy  pulse  at  one  hundred  or  over.  In  general,  the  pulse  is  quicker  in 
children  and  in  old  people  than  in  the  middle-aged ;  in  short  persons  than 
in  tall ;  in  women  than  in  men.  Shame  makes  the  heart  send  more  blood 
to  the  blushing  cheek,  and  fear  almost  stops  it.  The  will  can  not  check 
the  heart.  There  is  said,  however,  to  have  been  a  notable  exception  to  this 
in  the  case  of  one  Colonel  Townsend,  of  Dublin,  who,  after  having  succeeded 
several  times  in  stopping  the  pulsation,  at  last  lost  his  life  in  the  act. 


116  THE     CIRCULATION.  [114,115. 

nearly  every  disease.  The  physician,  therefore,  finds 
the  pulse  a  good  index  of  the  state  of  the  system 
and  the  character  of  the  disorder.  (See  p.  314.) 

The  Veins  are  the  tube-like  canals  which  convey 
the  blood  to  the  heart.*  They  carry  the  dark  or 
venous  blood  (note,  p.  119).  As  they  do  not  receive 
the  direct  impulse  of  the  heart,  their  walls  are  made 
much  thinner  and  less  elastic  than  those  of  the 
arteries.  At  first  small,  they  increase  in  size  and 
diminish  in  number  as  they  gradually  pour  into  one 
another,  like  tiny  rills  collecting  to  form  two  rivers, 
the  vena  cava  ascending  and  the  vena  cava  descend- 
ing (I,  m,  Fig.  34),  which  empty  into  the  right  auricle. 

Some  of  the  veins  creep  along  under  the  skin, 
where  they  can  be  seen,  as  in  the  back  of  the  hand; 
while  others  accompany  the  arteries,  some  of  which 
have  two  or  more  of  these  companions. 

Valves  similar  in  construction  to  those  already 
described  (the  semi-lunar  valves  of  the  heart,  page 
114)  are  placed  at  convenient  intervals,  in  order  to 
guide  the  blood  in  its  course,  and  prevent  its  setting 
backward.f  We  can  easily  examine  the  working  of 


*  There  is  one  exception  to  the  general  course  of  the  veins.  The  portat 
vein  carries  the  blood  from  the  digestive  organs  to  the  liver,  where  it  is 
acted  upon,  thence  poured  into  the  ascending  vena  cava,  and  goes  hack  to 
the  heart. 

t  Too  much  standing,  or  tight  elastics,  often  cause  the  veins  in  the  leg 
to  swell,  so  that  the  valves  can  not  work ;  the  veins  then  become  varicose,  or 
permanently  enlarged,  and,  if  they  burst,  the  bleeding  may  be  profuse  and 
even  dangerous.  Raising  the  leg  and  pressing  the  finger  on  the  bleeding 
spot  will  stay  it.  Walking  does  not  encourage  this  disease,  for  the  active 
muscles  force  on  the  venous  blood.  Clerks  who  are  subject  to  varicose 
veins  should  have  seats  behind  the  counters  where  they  may  rest  when  not 
actually  employed.  A  deep  breath  helps  the  flow  in  the  veins,  and  a 


114,115.]  THE     CAPILLAKIES.  117 

these  valves.    On  baring  the  arm,  blue  veins  may  be 
seen  running  along  the  arm  toward  the  hand.    Their 
diameter  is  tolerably   even,  and   they  gradually  de- 
crease  in   size.     If  now  the  FIG  40 
finger  be  pressed  on  the  up- 
per part  of  one  of  these  veins, 
and   then  passed  downward 
so  as  to  drive  its  blood  back- 
ward,   swellings     like     little 
knots  will  make  their  appear-              ™ves  of  the  Veim- 
ance.     Each  of  these  marks  the  location  of  a  valve, 
which   is    closed   by  the  blood  we   push   before   our 
finger.      Remove    the    pressure,    and    the    valve   will 
swing  open,  the  blood  set  forward,  and  the  vein  col- 
lapse to  its  former  size. 

The  Capillaries  (capillus,  a  hair)  form  a  fine  net- 
work of  tubes,  connecting  the  ends  of  the  arteries 
with  the  veins.  They  blend,  however,  with  the  ex- 
tremities of  these  two  systems,  so  that  it  is  not  easy 
to  tell  just  where  an  artery  ends  and  a  vein  begins. 
So  closely  are  they  placed,  that  we  can  not  prick  the 
flesh  with  a  needle  without  injuring,  perhaps,  hun- 
dreds of  them.  The  air-cells  of  the  blood  deposit 
there  their  oxygen,  and  receive  carbonic  acid,  while 
in  the  delicate  capillaries  of  the  lungs*  they  give 

wound  may  suck  in  air  with  fatal  effect.  A  maimed  horse  is  most  merci- 
fully killed  by  blowing  a  bubble  of  air  into  the  veins  of  his  neck.  As  the 
deep-sea  pressure  would  burst  valves,  the  whale  has  none ;  hence  a  small 
wound  by  the  harpoon  causes  him  to  bleed  to  death.— MAPOTHER. 

*  The  capillary  tubes  are  there  so  fine  that  the  disks  of  the  blood  have 
to  go  one  by  one,  and  are  sadly  squeezed  at  that.  However,  their  elasticity 
enables  them  to  resume  their  old  shape  as  soon  as  they  have  escaped  from 
this  labyrinth, 


118 


THE     CIRCULATION. 


[115,  116. 


of    carbonic    acid    in    exchange     for 


up    their   load 
oxygen. 

If,  by  means  of  a  microscope,  we  examine  the 
transparent  web  of  a  frog's  foot,  we  can  trace  the 
route  of  the  blood.*  It  is  an  experiment  of  wonder- 
ful interest.  The  crimson  stream,  propelled  by  the 

FIG.  41. 


Circulation  of  the  Blood  in  the  Web  of  a  Frog's  Foot,  highly  magnified.  A,  an 
artery;  B,  capillaries  crowded  with  disks,  owing  to  a  rupture  just  above,  where  the 
disks  are  jammed  into  an  adjacent  mesh ;  C,  a  deeper  vein ;  the  black  sjwts  are  pig- 
ment cells. 

heart,  rushes  through  the  arteries,  until  it  reaches 
the  intricate  meshes  of  the  capillaries.  Here  it  breaks 
into  a  thousand  tiny  rills.  We  can  see  the  disks  wind- 
ing in  single  file  through  the  devious  passages,  dart- 
ing hither  and  thither,  now  pausing,  swaying  to  and 
fro  with  an  uncertain  motion,  and  anon  dashing 
ahead,  until,  at  last,  gathered  in  the  veins,  the  blood 
sets  steadily  back  on  its  return  to  the  heart. 

*  With  small  splints  and  twine,  a  frog's  foot  can  be  easily  stretched 
and  tied  so  that  the  transparent  web  can  be  placed  on  the  table  of  the 
microscope. 


116-118.] 


THE     LESSER     CIRCULATION. 


119 


J  The  Circulation*  consists  of  two  parts — the  lesser, 
and  the  greater. 

1 .  The  Lesser 
Circulation.  —  The 
dark  blood  from 
the  veins  collects 
in  the  right  auricle, 
and,  going  through 
the  tricuspid  valve, 
empties  into  the 
right  ventricle. 
Thence  it  is  driven 
past  the  semi-lunar 
valves,  through  the 
pulmonary  artery, 
to  the  lungs.  B 
After  circulating 
through  the  fine 
capillaries  of  the 
air-cells  contained 
in  the  lungs,  it  is 
returned,  bright 
and  red,  through 
the  four  pulmonary  veins,  f 


Diagram  illustrating  the  Circulation  of  the  Sloocf. 
—MARSHALL.  A,  vena  cava  descending  (superior)  ; 
Z,  vena  cava  ascending  (inferior) ;  C,  right  auricle ; 
D,  right  ventricle  ;  E,  jnilmonany  artery  ;  V  P,  lungs 
and  pulmonary  veins ;  Q-,  left  auricle  ;  H,  left  ven- 
tricle ;  I,  K,  aorta. 

to   the   left   auricle. 


*  The  circulation  of  the  blood  was  discovered  by  Harvey  in  1619.  For 
several  years,  he  did  not  dare  to  publish  his  belief.  When  it  became 
known,  he  was  bitterly  persecuted,  and  his  practice  as  a  physician  greatly 
decreased  in  consequence.  He  lived,  however,  to  see  his  theory  universally 
adopted,  and  his  name  honored.  Harvey  is  said  to  have  declared  that  no 
man  over  forty  years  of  age  accepted  his  views. 

t  It  is  noticeable  that  the  pulmonary  set  of  veins  circulates  red  blood, 
and  the  pulmonary  set  of  arteries  circulates  dark  blood.  Both  are  connected 
with  the  lungs. 


120  THE     CIRCULATION.  [118,119. 

2.  The  Greater  Circulation. — From  the  left  auricle, 
the  blood  is  forced  past  the  bicuspid  valve  to  the 
left  ventricle ;  thence  it  is  driven  through  the  semi- 
lunar  valves  into  the  great  aorta,  the  main  trunk  of 
the  arterial  system.  Passing  through  the  arteries, 
capillaries,  and  veins,  it  returns  through  the  venae 
cavee,  ascending  and  descending,  gathers  again  in 
the  right  auricle,  and  so  completes  the  "grand  round" 
of  the  body.  Both  these  circulations  are  going  on 
constantly,  as  the  two  auricles  contract,  and  the  two 
ventricles  expand  simultaneously,  and  vice  versa. 

The  Velocity  of  the  Blood  varies  so  much  in 
different  parts  of  the  body,  and  is  influenced  by  so 
many  circumstances,  that  it  can  not  be  calculated 
with  any  degree  of  accuracy.  It  has  been  estimated 
that  a  portion  of  the  blood  will  make  the  tour  of 
the  body  in  about  twenty-three  seconds  (FLINT),  and 
that  the  entire  mass  passes  through  the  heart  in 
from  one  to  two  minutes.*  (See  p.  314.) 

Distribution  and  Regulation  of  the  Heat  of  the 
Body. — 1.  Distribution. — The  natural  temperature  is 
not  far  from  98°.f  This  is  maintained,  as  we  have 

*  The  total  amount  of  blood  in  an  adult  of  average  weight  is  about 
eighteen  pounds.  Dividing  this  by  five  ounces,  the  quantity  discharged  by 
the  left  ventricle  at  each  systole,  gives  fifty-eight  pulsations  as  the  number 
necessary  to  transmit  all  the  blood  in  the  body.  This,  however,  is  an 
extremely  unreliable  basis  of  calculation,  as  the  rapidity  of  the  blood  is 
itself  so  variable.  Chauvreau  has  shown  by  experiments  with  his  instru- 
ment that,  corresponding  to  the  first  dilation  of  the  vessels,  the  blood 
moves  with  immense  rapidity;  following  this,  the  current  suddenly  be- 
comes nearly  arrested ;  this  is  succeeded  by  a  second  acceleration  in  the 
current,  not  quite  so  rapid  as  the  first ;  and  after  this  there  is  a  gradual 
decline  in  the  rapidity  to  the  time  of  the  next  pulsation. 

t  The  average  temperature  is,  however,  easily  departed  from.  Through 
some  trivial  cause  the  cooling  agencies  may  be  interfered  with,  and  then, 


119.]  HEAT     OF     THE     BODY.  121 

already  seen,  by  the  action  of  the  oxygen  within  us. 
Each  capillary  tube  is  a  tiny  stove,  where  oxygen  is 
combining  with  the  tissues  of  the  body  (see  note,  p. 
107).  Every  contraction  of  a  muscle  develops  heat, 
the  latent  heat  being  set  free  by  the  breaking  up  of 
the  tissue.  The  warmth  so  produced  is  distributed 
by  the  circulation  of  the  blood.  Thus  the  arteries, 
veins,  and  capillaries  form  a  series  of  hot-water 
pipes,  through  which  the  heated  liquid  is  forced  by 
a  pump — the  heart — while  the  heat  is  kept  up,  not 
by  a  central  furnace  and  boiler,  but  by  a  multitude 
of  little  fires  placed  here  and  there  along  its  course. 
2.  Regulation. —  The  temperature  of  the  body  is 
regulated  by  means  of  the  pores  of  the  skin  and  the 
mucous  membrane  in  the  air-passages.  When  the 
system  becomes  too  warm,  the  blood-vessels  on  the 
surface  expand,  the  blood  fills  them,  the  fluid  exudes 
into  the  perspiratory  glands,  pours  out  upon  the  ex- 
terior, and  by  evaporation  cools  the  body.*  When 
the  temperature  of  the  body  is  too  low,  the  vessels 
contract,  less  blood  goes  to  the  surface,  the  perspi- 
ration decreases,  and  the  loss  of  heat  by  evaporation 
diminishes,  f 

* 

the  heating  processes  getting  the  superiority,  a  high  temperature  or  fever 
conies  on.  Or  the  reverse  may  ensue.  In  Asiatic  cholera,  the  constitution 
of  the  blood  is  so  changed  that  its  disks  can  no  longer  carry  oxygen  into 
the  system,  the  heat-making  processes  are  put  a  stop  to,  and,  the  temper- 
ature declining,  the  body  becomes  of  a  marble  coldness,  characteristic  of 
that  terrible  disease. — DRAPER. 

*  Just  as  water  sprinkled  on  the  floor  cools  a  room.— Popular  Physics, 
p.  255. 

t  Thus  one  is  enabled  to  go  into  an  oven  where  bread  is  baking,  or 
into  the  arctic  regions  where  the  mountains  are  snow  and  the  rivers  ice. 
Even  by  these  extremes  the  temperature  of  the  blood  will  be  but  slightly 


122  THE     CIRCULATION.  1119, 120. 

Life  by  Death.  —  The  body  is  being  incessantly 
corroded,  and  portions  borne  away  by  the  tireless 
oxygen.  The  scales  of  the  epidermis  are  constantly 
falling  off  and  being  replaced  by  secretion  from  the 
cutis.  The  disks  of  the  blood  die,  and  new  ones 
spring  into  being.  On  the  continuance  of  this  inter- 
change depend  our  health  and  vigor.  Every  act  is 
a  destructive  one.  Not  a  bend  of  the  finger,  not  a 
wink  of  the  eye,  not  a  thought  of  the  brain  but  is 
at  some  expense  of  the  machine  itself.  Every  process 
of  life  is  thus  a  process  of  death.  The  more  rapidly 
this  change  goes  on,  and  fresh,  vigorous  tissue  takes 
the  place  of  the  old,  the  more  elasticity  and  strength 
we  possess.  « 

Change  of  our  Bodies. — There  is  a  belief  that  our 
bodies  change  once  in  seven  years.  From  the  nature 
of  the  case,  the  rate  must  vary  with  the  labor  we 
perform ;  the  organs  most  used  altering  oftenest. 
Probably  the  parts  of  the  body  in  incessant  employ- 
ment are  entirely  reorganized  many  times  within  a 
single  year.* 

The  Three  Vital  Organs. — Death  is  produced  by 
the  stoppage  of  the  action  of  any  one  of  the  three 
organs  —  the  heart,  the  lungs,  or  the  brain.  They 
have,  therefore,  been  termed  the  "Tripod  of  Life." 
Really,  however,  as  Huxley  has  remarked,  "Life  has 


affected.  In  the  one  case,  the  flood-gates  of  perspiration  will  be  opened 
and  the  superfluous  heat  expended  in  turning  the  water  to  vapor ;  and,  in 
the  other,  they  will  be  tightly  closed  and  all  the  heat  retained. 

*  To  use  a  homely  simile,  our  bodies  are  like  the  Irishman's  knife, 
which,  after  having  had  several  new  blades,  and  at  least  one  new  handle, 
was  yet  the  same  old  knife. 


120,121.]      WONDERS  OF  THE  HEART.         123 

but  two  legs  to  stand  upon."  If  respiration  and  cir- 
culation be  kept  up  artificially,  the  removal  of  the 
brain  will  not  produce  death.* 

Wonders  of  the  Heart. — The  ancients  thought  the 
heart  to  be  the  seat  of  love.  There  were  located  the 
purity  and  goodness  as  well  as  the  evil  passions  of 
the  soul.f  Modern  science  has  found  the  seat  of  the 
mental  powers  to  be  in  the  brain.  But  while  it  has 
thus  robbed  the  heart  of  its  romance,  it  has  revealed 
wonders  which  eclipse  all  the  mysteries  of  the  past. 
This  marvelous  little  engine  throbs  on  continually 
at  the  rate  of  one  hundred  thousand  beats  per  day, 
forty  millions  per  year,  often  three  billions  without 
a  single  stop.  It  is  the  most  powerful  of  machines. 
"  Its  daily  work  is  equal  to  one  third  that  of  all  the 
muscles.  If  it  should  expend  its  entire  force  in  lift- 
ing its  own  weight  vertically,  it  would  rise  twenty 
thousand  feet  in  an  hour."J  Its  vitality  is  amazing. 
The  most  tireless  of  organs  while  life  exists,  it  is 
one  of  the  last  to  yield  when  life  expires.  So  long 
as  a  flutter  lingers  at  the  heart,  we  know  the  spark 
of  being  is  not  quite  extinguished,  and  there  is  hope 

*  When  death  really  does  take  place,  i.  e.,  when  the  vital  organs  are 
stopped,  it  is  noticeable  that  the  tissues  do  not  die  for  some  time  there- 
after. If  suitable  stimulants  be  applied,  as  the  galvanic  battery,  transfusion 
of  blood,  etc.,  the  muscles  may  be  made  to  contract,  and  many  of  the 
phenomena  of  life  be  exhibited.  Dr.  Brown-Sequard  thus  produced  mus- 
cular action  in  the  hand  of  a  criminal,  fourteen  hours  after  his  execution. 

t  Our  common  words,  hearty,  large-hearted,  courage  (cor,  the  heart),  are 
remains  of  this  fanciful  theory. 

$  "The  greatest  exploit  ever  accomplished  by  a  locomotive,  was  to  lift 
itself  through  less  than  one  eighth  of  that  distance."  Vast  and  constant 
as  is  this  process,  so  perfect  is  the  machinery,  that  there  are  persons  who 
do  not  even  know  where  the  heart  lies  until  disease  or  accident  reveals  its 
location. 


124 


THE     CIRCULATION. 


[121,  122. 


of  restoration.  During  a  life  such  as  we  sometimes 
see,  it  has  propelled  half  a  million  tons  of  blood,  yet 
repaired  itself  as  it  has  wasted,  during  its  patient, 
unfaltering  labor.  The  play  of  its  valves  and  the 


PIG.  43. 


Lymphatics  of  the  Head  and  Neck,  showing  the  Glands,  and,  B,  the  thoracic  duct 
as  it  empties  into  the  left  innominate  vein  at  the  junction  of  the  left  jugular  and  sub- 
clavian  veins. 

rhythm  of  its  throb  have  never  failed  until,  at  the 
command  of  the  great  Master- Workman,  the  "  wheels 
of  life  have  stood  still."* 

The  Lymphatic  Circulation  is  intimately  connected 
with  that  of  the  blood.  It  is,  however,  more  delicate 

*  Our  brains  are  seventy-five-year  clocks.  The  Angel  of  Life  winds 
them  up  once  for  all,  then  closes  the  case,  and  gives  the  key  into  the  hand 
of  the  Angel  of  the  Resurrection.  Tic-tac !  tic-tac !  go  the  wheels  of 
thought;  our  will  can  not  stop  them,  they  can  not  stop  themselves;  sleep 
can  not  stop  them  ;  madness  only  makes  them  go  faster ;  death  alone  can 
break  into  the  case,  and,  seizing  the  ever-swinging  pendulum  which  we  call 
the  heart,  silence  at  last  the  clicking  of  the  terrible  escapement  we  have 
carried  so  long  beneath  our  wrinkled  foreheads.— HOLMES. 


122,123.]       THE     LYMPHATIC     CIRCULATION. 


125 


FIG.  44. 


in  its  organization,  and  less  thoroughly  understood. 
Nearly  every  part  of  the  body  is 
permeated'  by  a  second  series  of 
capillaries,  closely  interlaced  with 
the  blood-capillaries  already  de- 
scribed, and  termed  the  Lym- 
phatic system.  The  larger  num- 
ber converge  into  the  thoracic 
duct — a  small  tube,  about  the  size 
of  a  goose-quill,  which  empties 
into  the  great  veins  of  the  neck 
(Fig.  43).  Along  their  course 
the  lymphatics  frequently  pass 
through  glands,  —  hard,  pinkish 
bodies  of  all  sizes.,  from  that  of  a 
hemp-seed  to  an  almond.  These 
glands  are  often  enlarged  by  dis- 
ease, and  then  are  easily  felt. 

The  Lymph,  which  circulates 
through  the  lymphatics  like  blood 
through  the  veins,  is  a  thin,  color- 
less liquid,  very  like  the  serum. 
This  fluid,  probably  in  great 
measure  an  overflow  from  the  - 
blood-vessels,  is  gathered  up  by 
the  lymphatics,  undergoes  in  the 
glands  some  process  of  prepara- 
tion not  well  understood,  and  is  Lymphatics  in  the  i^,  with 

Glands  at  the  Hip. 

then  returned  to  the  circulation. 

Office  of  the  Lymphatics. — It  is  thought  that  por- 
tions of  the  waste   matter  of  the  body  capable   of 


126  THE     CIRCULATION.  [123,124. 

further  use  are  thus,  by  a  wise  economy,  retained 
and  elaborated  in -the  system. 

The  lacteals,  a  class  of  lymphatics  which  will  be 
described  under  Digestion  (p.  166),  aid  in  taking  up 
the  food ;  after  a  meal  they  become  milk-white.  In 
the  lungs,  the  lymphatics  -are  abundant ;  sometimes 
absorbing  the  poison  of  disease,  and  diffusing  it 
through  the  system.* 

The  lymphatics  of  the  skin  we  have  already 
spoken  of  as  producing  the  phenomena  of  absorp- 
tion, f  Nature  in  her  effort  to  heal  a  cut  deposits  an 
excess  of  matter  to  fill  up  the  breach.  Soon,  the 
lymphatics  go  to  work  and  remove  the  surplus  ma- 
terial to  other  parts  of  the  body. 

Animals  that  hibernate  are  supported  during  the 
winter  by  the  fat  which  their  absorbents  carry  into 
the  circulation  from  the  extra  supply  they  have  laid 
up  during  the  summer.  In  famine  or  in  sickness,  a 
man  unconsciously  consumes  his  own  flesh. 

Diseases,  etc. — 1.  Congestion  is  an  unnatural  ac- 
cumulation of  blood  in  any  part  of  the  body.  The 
excess  is  indicated  by  the  redness.  If  we  put  our 
feet  in  hot  water,  the  capillaries  will  expand  by  the 
heat,  and  the  blood  will  set  that  way  to  fill  them.  The 
red  nose  arid  purplish  face  of  the  drunkard  show  a 
congestion  of  the  capillaries.  Those  vessels  have  lost 
their  power  of  contraction,  and  so  are  permanently 

*  Persons  have  thus  been  poisoned  by  tiny  particles  of  arsenic  which 
evaporate  from  green  wall-paper,  and  float  in  the  air. 

t  Pain  is  often  relieved  by  injecting  under  the  cuticle  a  solution  of 
morphine,  which  is  taken  up  by  the  absorbents,  and  so  carried  through 
the  system. 


124,125.]  DISEASES,     ETC.  127 

increased  in  size  and  filled  with  blood.  Blushing  is 
a  temporary  congestion.  The  capillaries  being  ex- 
panded only  for  an  instant  by  the  nervous  excite- 
ment, contract  again  and  expel  the  blood.* 

2.  Inflammation  means  simply  a  burning.  If  there 
is  irritation  or  an  injury  at  any  spot,  the  blood  sets 
thither  and  reddens  it.  This  extra  supply,  both  by 
its  presence  and  the  friction  of  the  swiftly-moving 
currents,  produces  heat.  The  pressure  of  the  dis- 
tended vessels  upon  the  nerves  frets  them,  and  pro- 
duces pain.  The  swelling  stretches  the  walls  of  the 
blood-vessels,  and  the  serum  or  lymph  oozes  through. 
The  four  characteristics  of  an  inflammation  are  red- 
ness, heat,  pain,  and  swelling. 

{    3.    Bleeding,    if    from    an    artery,  will  be    of  red 
blood,  and  will  come  in  jets ;  f    if  from  the  veins,  it 

*  Blushing  is  a  purely  local  modification  of  the  circulation  of  this 
kind,  and  it  will  be  instructive  to  consider  how  a  blush  is  brought  about. 
An  emotion— sometimes  pleasurable,  sometimes  painful— takes  possession 
of  the  mind ;  thereupon  a  hot  flush  is  felt,  the  skin  grows  red,  and  accord- 
ing to  the  intensity  of  the  emotion  these  changes  are  confined  to  the 
cheeks  only,  or  extend  to  the  "roots  of  the  hair,"  or  "all  over."  What  is 
the  cause  of  these  changes  ?  The  blood  is  a  red  and  a  hot  fluid ;  the  skin  red- 
dens and  grows  hot,  because  its  vessels  contain  an  increased  quantity  of 
this  red  and  hot  fluid ;  and  its  vessels  contain  more,  because  the  small 
arteries  suddenly  dilate,  the  natural  moderate  contraction  of  their  muscles 
being  superseded  by  a  state  of  relaxation.  In  other  words,  the  action  of 
the  nerves  which  cause  this  muscular  contraction  is  suspended.  On  the 
other  hand,  in  many  people,  extreme  terror  causes  the  skin  to  grow  cold, 
and  the  face  to  appear  pale  and  pinched.  Under  these  circumstances,  in 
fact,  the  supply  of  blood  to  the  skin  is  greatly  diminished,  in  consequence 
of  an  excessive  stimulation  of  the  nerves  of  the  small  arteries,  which 
causes  them  to  contract  and  so  to  cut  off  the  supply  of  blood  more  or  less 
completely.— HUXLEY'S  Physiology. 

t  The  elasticity  of  the  arteries  (p.  114)  is  a  physical  property,  as  may 
easily  be  shown  by  removing  one  from  a  dead  body.  If  they  were  rigid 
and  unyielding,  a  considerable  portion  of  the  heart's  force  would  be  use- 
lessly expended  against  their  walls.  Their  expansion  is  a  passive  state,  and 


128  THE     CIRCULATION.  [125,126. 

will  be  of  dark  blood,  and  will  flow  in  a  steady 
stream.  If  only  a  small  vessel  be  severed,  it  may  be 
checked  by  a  piece  of  cloth  held  or  bound  firmly 
upon  the  wound.  If  a  large  trunk  be  cut,  especially 
in  a  limb,  make  a  knot  in  a  handkerchief  and  tie  it 
loosely  about  the  limb ;  then,  placing  the  knot  on 
the  wound,  with  a  short  stick  twist  the  handkerchief 
tightly  enough  to  stop  the  flow.  If  you  have  a  piece 
of  cloth  to  use  as  a  pad,  the  knot  will  be  unneces- 
sary. If  it  be  an  artery  that  is  cut,  the  pressure 
should  be  applied  between  the  wound  and  the  heart ; 
if  a  vein,  beyond  the  wound.  If  you  are  alone,  and 
are  severely  wounded,  or  in  an  emergency,  like  a 
railroad  accident,  use  the  remedy  which  has  saved 
many  a  life  upon  the  battle-field—bind  or  hold  a 
handful  of  dry  earth  upon  the  wound,  elevate  the 
part,  and  await  surgical  assistance. 

4.  Scrofula  is  generally  inherited.  It  is  a  disease 
affecting  the  lymphatic  glands,  most  commonly  those 
of -the  neck,  forming  "kernels,"  as  they  are  'called. 
It  is,  however,  liable  to  attack  any  organ.  Persons 
inheriting  this  disease  can  hope  to  ward  off  its  in- 


depends  on  the  pressure  of  the  blood  within  them ;  but  their  vital  con- 
tractility is  an  active  property.— The  intermittent  movement  of  the  blood 
through  the  arteries  is  strikingly  shown  in  the  manner  in  which  they 
bleed  when  wounded.  When  an  artery  is  cut  across,  the  blood  spurts  out 
with  great  force  to  a  distance  of  several  feet,  but  the  flow  is  not  continuous. 
It  escapes  in  a  series  of- jets,  the  long,  slender  scarlet  stream  rising  and 
falling  with  each  beat  of  the  heart,  and  this  pulsation  of  the  blood-stream 
tells  at  once  that  it  comes  from  a  wounded  artery.  But  as  the  blood  trav- 
erses these  elastic  tubes,  the  abruptness  of  the  heart's  stroke  becomes 
gradually  broken  and  the  current  equalized,  so  that  the  greater  the  distance 
from  the  heart  the  less  obvious  is  the  pulsation,  until  at  length  in  the 
capillaries  the  rate  of  the  stream  becomes  uniform. 


126,127.]  DISEASES,     ETC.  129 

sidious  approaches  only  by  the  utmost  care  in  diet 
and  exercise ;  by  the  use  of  pure  air  and  warm 
clothing,  and  by  avoiding  late  hours  and  undue 
stimulus  of  all  kinds.  Probably  the  most  fatal  and 
common  excitants  of  the  latent  seeds  of  scrofula  are 
insufficient  or  improper  food,  and  want  of  ventila- 
tion. 

5.  A  Cold. — We  put  on  a  thinner  dress  than  usual, 
or,  when  heated,  sit  in  a  cool  place.  The  skin  is 
chilled,  and  the  perspiration  checked.  The  blood,  no 
longer  cleansed  and  reduced  in  volume  by  the  drain- 
age through  the  pores,  sets  to  the  lungs  for  purifica- 
tion. That  organ  is  oppressed,  breathing  becomes 
difficult,  and  the  extra  mucus  secreted  by  the  irri- 
tated surface  of  the  membrane  is  thrown  off  by 
coughing.  The  mucous  membrane  of  the  nasal 
chamber  sympathizes  with  the  difficulty,  and  we 
have  "  a  cold  in  the  head,"  or  a  catarrh.  In  general, 
the  excess  of  blood  seeks  the  weakest  point,  and 
develops  there  any  latent  disease.*  Where  one  per- 
son has  been  killed  in  battle,  thousands  have  died  of 
colds. 

To  restore  the  equipoise  must  be  the  object  of  all 
treatment.  We  put  the  feet  in  hot  water  and  they 
soon  become  red  and  gorged  with  the  blood  which  is 

*  A  party  go  out  for  a  walk  and  are  caught  in  a  rain,  or,  coming  home 
heated  from  some  close  assembly,  throw  off  their  coats  to  enjoy  the  deli- 
ciously-cool  breeze.  The  next  day,  one  has  a  fever,  another  a  slight  head- 
ache, another  pleurisy,  another  pneumonia,  another  rheumatism,  while 
some  of  the  number  escape  without  any  ill-feeling  whatever.  The  last  had 
vital  force  sufficient  to  withstand  the  disturbance,  but  in  the  others  there 
were  various  weak  points,  and  to  these  the  excess  of  blood  has  gone,  pro- 
ducing congestion. 


130 


THE     CIRCULATION. 


[127,  128. 


thus  called  from  the  congested  organs.  Hot  foot- 
baths have  saved  multitudes  of  lives.  It  is  well  in 
case  of  a  sudden  cold  to  go  immediately  to  bed,  and 
with  hot  drinks  and  extra  clothing  open  the  pores, 
and  induce  free  perspiration.  This  calls  the  blood  to 
the  surface,  and,  by  equalizing  and  diminishing  the 
volume  of  the  circulation,  affords  relief.* 

6.  Catarrh  commonly  manifests  itself  by  the 
symptoms  known  as  those  of  a  "  cold  in  the  head," 
and  is  produced  by  the  same  causes.  It  is  an  in- 
flammation of  the  mucous  membrane  lining  the 
nasal  and  bronchial  passages.  One  going  out  from 
the  hot  dry  air  of  a  furnace-heated  room  into  the 
cold  damp  atmosphere  of  our  climate  can  hardly 
avoid  irritating  and  inflaming  this  tender  membrane. 
If  our  rooms  were  heated  less  intensely,  and  venti- 
lated more  thoroughly,  so  that  we  had  not  the  pres- 
ent hot-house  sensitiveness  to  cold  air,  this  disease 
would  be  far  less  universal,  and  perhaps  would  dis- 
appear entirely,  f  (See  p.  315.) 

*  Severe  colds  may  often  be  relieved  in  their  first  stages  by  using 
lemons  freely  during  the  day,  and  taking  at  night  fifteen  or  twenty  grains 
of  sodium  bromide.  Great  care,  however,  should  be  observed  in  employing 
the  latter  remedy,  except  under  the  advice  of  a  physician. 

t  Dr.  Gray  gives  the  following  table  : 


"Rooms  Occupied  by  Letter-press  Printers. 

Number  per 
cent. 
Spitting  Blood. 

Subject  to 
Catarrh. 

104  men  having  less  than  500  cubic  feet  of  air 

12.50 

12.50 

115  men  having  from  500  to  600  cubic  feet  of 

4.35 

3.58 

101  men  having  more  than  600  cubic  feet  of 
air  to  breathe                                       .    ... 

3.96 

1.98 

128, 128a.]  ALCOHOL.  131 


ALCOHOLIC    DRINKS   AND    NARCOTICS. 

1.    ALCOHOL. 

THAT  we  may  understand  fully  the  effect  of  alco- 
hol upon  the  human  system,  let  us  first  consider  its 
nature  and  the  process  by  which  harmless  fruits  and 
grains  are  made  to  produce  a  substance  so  unlike 
themselves  in  its  deleterious  effects. 

How  Alcohol  is  Made. — When  any  substance  con- 
taining sugar,  as  fruit-juice,  is  caused  to  ferment, 
the  elements  of  which  the  sugar  is  composed,  viz., 
hydrogen,  carbon,  and  oxygen,  so  re-arrange  them- 
selves as  to  form  carbon  dioxide  (carbonic  acid), 
alcohol,  and  certain  volatile  oils  and  ethers.*  The 
carbonic  acid  partly  evaporates  and  partly  remains 
in  the  liquor ;  the  alcohol  is  the  poisonous  or  intox- 
icating principle,  while  the  oils  and  ethers  impart 
the  peculiar  flavor  and  odor.  Thus  wine  is  fermented 
grape-juice,  and  cider  is  fermented  apple-juice,  each 
having  its  distinctive  taste  and  smell,  and  each  con- 
taining, as  one  product  of  fermentation,  more  or  less 
of  the  inebriating  alcohol.  Wines  are  also  made 
from  other  fruits  and  vegetables,  such  as  oranges, 
currants,  tomatoes,  and  rhubarb,  but  the  alcohol 
which  they  contain  is  of  the  same  nature  in  all 
cases,  whether  the  fermented  liquor  has  been  manu- 
factured in  great  quantities,  by  large  presses,  or  by 

*  The  precise  relation  between  chemical  phenomena  and  the  physiolog- 
ical functions  of  the  organic  ferment  is  still  to  be  discovered ;  and  all  that 
has  been  said,  written,  and  brought  forward  to  decide  the  question,  needs 
experimental  proof.— SCHUTZENBERGER. 


132  THE     CIECULATION.  [128a,  128ft. 

a  simple  domestic  process  for  home  consumption.  It 
is  important  to  remember  this  fact,  as  many  people 
do  not  associate  alcohol  with  such  beverages  as  do- 
mestic wines  and  home-brewed  ales,  whereas  it  is 
always  present  with  the  same  treacherous  qualities 
which  attach  to  it  every- where.  An  apple  is  a  whole- 
some and  useful  fruit,  and  its  simple  juice,  fragrant 
and  refreshing,  is  a  delight  to  the  palate ;  but  apple- 
juice  converted  into  cider  and  allowed  to  enter  upon 
alcoholic  fermentation,  loses  its  innocence,  and  be- 
comes a  dangerous  drink,  because  it  is  the  nature  of 
the  alcohol  it  now  contains  to  create  an  appetite  for 
more  alcohol.  (See  p.  185.) 

What  is  a  Ferment  ? — Ferments,  of  which  there 
are  many  varieties  in  nature,  are  minute  living  or- 
ganisms analogous  to  the  microscopic  objects  called 
bacteria  or  microbes,*  of  which  we  have  heard  much 
in  late  years,  especially  in  connection  with  the  fa- 
mous researches  and  experiments  of  the  great  French 
investigator,  M.  Pasteur.  He  tells  us  that  "Every 
fermentation  has  its  specific  ferment.  This  minute 
being  produces  the  transformation  which  constitutes 
fermentation  by  breathing  the  oxygen  of  the  sub- 
stance to  be  fermented,  or  by  appropriating  for  an 
instant  the  whole  substance,  then  destroying  it  by 
what  may  be  termed  the  secretion  of  the  fermented 


*  There  is  no  well-defined  limit  between  ferments  and  bacteria,  any 
more  than  between  ferments  and  fungi,  or  again,  between  fungi  and  bac- 
teria. Their  smaller  size  is  the  principal  difference  which  separates  bacte- 
ria from  ferments,  although  there  are  bacteria  of  large  size,  such  as  are  so 
frequently  found  in  the  mouth  of  even  a  healthy  man,  and  which  much 
resemble  in  their  mode  of  growth  some  of  the  lower  fungi.— TROUESSABT. 


1286, 128c.]  YEAST.  133 

products."*  The  effect,  therefore,  of  fermentation  is 
to  change  entirely  the  character  of  the  substance 
upon  which  it  acts  ;  hence  it  is  an  error  to  assume 
that  fermented  liquors,  as  beer,  wine,  and  cider,  are 
safe  drinks  because  the  grains  or  fruits  from  which 
they  are  produced  are  healthful  foods. 

Yeast  is  a  ferment  which  causes  alcoholic  fer- 
mentation. It  consists  of  microscopic  plants,  which 
increase  by  the  formation  of  multitudes  of  tiny  cells 
not  more  than  ^Vo-  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  In  the 
brewing  of  beer  they  grow  in  great  abundance,  mak- 
ing common  brewer's  yeast.  Ferments  or  their 
spores  float  in  the  air  ready  to  enter  any  ferment- 
able liquid,  and  under  favorable  conditions  they  mul- 
tiply with  great  activity  and  energy.  The  favorable 
conditions  include  the  presence  of  oxygen  or  sugar  ;f 
oxygen  being,  as  we  know,  necessary  for  the  devel- 
opment and  the  reproduction  of  all  cell  life  (p.  107), 
and  ferments  having  the  power  to  resolve  sugar, 

*  What  we  call  spontaneous  fermentation  often  occurs,  as  when  apple- 
juice  turns  to  hard  cider  by  simple  exposure  to  the  air.  Science  teaches 
us,  however,  that  this  change  is  always  effected  by  the  action  of  the  busy 
little  ferments  which,  wandering  about,  drop  into  the  liquid,  begin  their 
rapid  propagation,  and,  in  the  act  of  growing,  evolve  the  products  of  the 
fermentation.  "If  the  above  liquids  be  left  only  in  contact  with  air  which 
has  been  passed  through  a  red-hot  platinum  tube,  and  thus  the  living 
sporules  destroyed ;  or  if  the  air  be  simply  filtered  by  passing  through 
cotton  wool,  and  the  sporules  prevented  from  coming  into  the  liquid,  it  is 
found  that  these  fermentable  liquids  may  be  preserved  for  any  length  of 
time  without  undergoing  the  slightest  change."— ROSCOE. 

t  Yeast,  like  ordinary  plants,  buds  and  multiplies  even  in  the  absence 
of  fermentable  sugar,  when  it  is  furnished  with  free  oxygen.  This  multi- 
plication, however,  is  favored  by  the  presence  of  sugar,  which  is  a  more 
appropriate  element  than  non-fermentable  hydrocarbon  compounds.  Yeast  is 
also  able  to  bud  and  multiply  in  the  absence  of  free  oxygen,  but  in  this  case, 
a  fermentable  substance  is  indispensable,— SOHUTZENBERGER'S  Fermentation^ 


134  THE     CIRCULATION.  [128c,  I2»d. 

which  penetrates  by  endosmose  into  the  interior  of 
the  cell,  into  alcohol,  carbonic  acid,  glycerine,  suc- 
cinic  acid,  and  oxygen. 

Beer. — The  barley  used  for  making  beer  is  first 
malted,  i.  e.,  sprouted,  to  turn  a  part  of  its  starch 
into  sugar.  When  this  process  has  gone  far  enough, 
it  is  checked  by  heating  the  grain  in  a  kiln  until 
the  germ  is  destroyed.  The  malt  is  then  crushed, 
steeped,  and  fermented  with  hops  and  yeast.  The 
sugar  gradually  disappears,  alcohol  is  formed,  and 
carbonic  acid  escapes  into  the  air.  The  beer  is  then 
put  into  casks,  where  it  undergoes  a  second,  slower 
fermentation,  and  the  carbonic  acid  gathers ;  when 
the  liquor  is  drawn,  this  gas  bubbles  to  the  surface, 
giving  to  the  beer  its  sparkling,  foamy  look. 

Wine  is  generally  made  from  the  juice  of  the 
grape.  The  juice,  or  must,  as  it  is  called,  is  placed 
in  vats  in  the  cellar,  where  the  low  temperature  fa- 
vors a  slow  fermentation.  If  all  the  sugar  be  con- 
verted into  alcohol  and  carbonic-acid  gas,  a  dry  wine 
will  remain ;  if  the  fermentation  be  checked,  a 
sweet  wine  will  result ;  and  if  the  wine  be  bottled 
while  the  change  is  still  going  on,  a  brisk  efferves- 
cing liquor  like  champagne,  will  be  formed.  All 
these  are  dangerous  beverages  because  of  the  alcohol 
they  contain. 

Distillation. — Alcohol  is  so  volatile  that,  by  the 
application  of  heat,  it  can  be  driven  off  as  a  vapor 
from  the  fermented  liquid  in  which  it  has  been 
produced.  Steam  and  various  fragrant  substances 
will  accompany  it,  and,  if  they  are  collected  and 


128rf,128<|  VAKIETIES     OF     ALCOHOL.  135 

condensed  in  a  cool  receiver,  a  new  and  stronger 
liquor  will  be  formed,  having  a  distinctive  odor. 

In  this  way  whiskey  is  distilled  from  fermented 
corn,  rye,  barley,  or  potatoes ;  the  alcohol  of  com- 
merce is  distilled  from  whiskey ;  brandy,  from  wine ; 
rum,  from  fermented  molasses ;  and  gin,  from  fer- 
mented barley  and  rye,  afterward  distilled  with  juni- 
per berries. 

Varieties  and  Properties  of  Alcohol. — There  are 
several  varieties  of  alcohol  produced  from  distillation 
of  various  substances.  Thus  Methyl  Alcohol  is  ob- 
tained from  the  decomposition  of  hard  wood  when 
exposed  to  intense  heat  with  little  or  no  oxygen 
present.  It  is  a  light,  volatile  liquid,  which  closely 
resembles  ordinary  alcohol  in  all  its  properties.  It  is 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  aniline  dyes,  in  making 
varnishes,  and  for  burning  in  spirit  lamps.  Amyl 
Alcohol*  is  the  chief  constituent  of  "fusel  oil,"  found 
in. whiskey  distilled  from  potatoes.  It  is  often  pres- 
ent in  common  alcohol,  giving  a  slightly  unpleasant 
odor  when  it  evaporates  from  the  hand.  Fusel  oil 
is  extremely  poisonous  and  lasting  in  its  effects,  so 
that  when  contained  in  liquors  it  greatly  increases 
their  destructive  and  intoxicating  properties. 


*  The  odor  of  amylic  alcohol  is  sweet,  nauseous,  and  heavy.  The  sen- 
sation of  its  presence  remains  long.  In  taste  it  is  burning  and  acrid,  and 
it  is  itself  practically  insoluble  in  water.  When  it  is  diluted  with  common 
alcohol  it  dissolves  freely  in  water,  and  gives  a  soft  and  rather  unctuous 
flavor,  I  may  call  it  a  fruity  flavor,  something  like  that  of  ripe  pears. 
Amyl  alcohol,  introduced  as  an  adulterant,  is  an  extremely  dangerous  ad- 
dition to  ordinary  alcohol,  in  whatever  form  it  is  presented.  From  the 
quantities  of  it  imported  into  this  country,  it  is  believed  to  be  employed 
largely  in  the  adulteration  of  wines  and  spirits.— RICHABDSON. 


136  THE     CIRCULATION.  [128*,  128/. 

Ethyl  Alcohol,  which  is  that  which  we  have  de- 
scribed as  obtained  from  fermentation  of  fruits  and 
grains,  is  the  ordinary  alcohol  of  commerce.  We 
have  spoken  of  its  volatility.  This  property  permits 
it  to  pass  into  vapor  at  56°  Fahr.  It  boils  at  173° 
Fahr.  (Water  boils  at  212°.)  Like  Methyl  Alcohol, 
it  burns  without  smoke  and  with  great  heat,*  and  is 
therefore  of  much  value  in  the  arts.  Its  great  solv- 
ent power  over  fats  and  mixed  oils  renders  it  a 
useful  agent  in  many  industrial  operations.  It  is 
also  a  powerful  antiseptic,  and  no  one  who  visits  a 
museum  of  natural  history  will  be  likely  to  forget 
the  rows  of  bottles  within  which  float  reptilian  and 
batrachian  specimens,  preserved  in  alcohol. 

To  alcohol,  also,  we  are  indebted  for  various 
anaesthetic  agents,  which,  when  not  abused  (p.  340), 
are  of  inestimable  value.  Thus,  if  certain  propor- 
tions of  alcohol  and  nitric  acid  be  mixed  together 
and  heated,  nitrite  of  amyl,  so  serviceable  in  reliev- 
ing the  agonizing  spasms  peculiar  to  that  dread  dis- 
ease, angina  pectoris,  will  be  obtained.  If,  instead  of 
nitric,  we  use  sulphuric  acid,  we  shall  get  ether ;  if 


*  Pour  a  little  alcohol  into  a  saucer  and  apply  an  ignited  match.  The 
liquid  will  suddenly  take  fire,  burning  with  intense  heat,  but  feeble  light. 
In  this  process,  alcohol  takes  up  oxygen  from,  the  air,  forming  carbonic-acid 
gas,  and  water.— Hold  a  red-hot  coil  of  platinum  wire  in  a  goblet  containing 
a  few  drops  of  alcohol,  and  a  peculiar  odor  will  be  noticed.  It  denotes  the 
formation  of  aldehyde—a  substance  produced  in  the  slow  oxidation  of  alcohol. 
Still  further  oxidized,  the  alcohol  would  be  changed  into  acetic  acid—ihe 
sour  principle  of  vinegar.— Put  the  white  of  an  egg— nearly  pure  albumen— 
into  a  cup,  and  pour  upon  it  some  alcohol,  or  even  strong  brandy ;  the 
fluid  albumen  will  coagulate,  becoming  hard  and  solid.  In  this  connection, 
it  is  well  to  remember  that  albumen  is  contained  in  our  food,  while  the 
brain  is  largely  an  albuminous  substance. 


128/.]  VARIETIES     OF     ALCOHOL.  137 

chlorine  be  passed  through  alcohol,  hydrate  of  chloral 
is  the  result ;  and,  if  chloride  of  lime  and  alcohol  be 
treated  together,  the  outcome  is  chloroform. 

One  of  the  most  striking  properties  of  alcohol, 
and  one  which  we  shall  hereafter  consider  in  its  dis- 
astrous effects  upon  the  tissues  of  our  body,  is  its 
affinity  for  water.*  When  strong  alcohol  is  exposed 


*  Suppose,  then,  a  certain  measure  of  alcohol  be  taken  into  the  stomach, 
it  will  be  absorbed  there,  but,  previous  to  absorption,  it  will  have  to  un- 
dergo a  proper  degree  of  dilution  with  water ;  for  there  is  this  peculiarity 
respecting  alcohol  when  it  is  separated  by  an  animal  membrane  from  a 
watery  fluid  like  the  blood,  that  it  will  not  pass  through  the  membrane 
until  it  has  become  charged,  to  a  given  point  of  dilution,  with  water. 
Alcohol  is  itself,  in  fact,  so  greedy  for  water  that  it  will  pick  it  up  from 
watery  textures,  and  deprive  them  of  it  until,  by  its  saturation,  its  power 
of  reception  is  exhausted,  after  which  it  will  diffuse  into  the  current  of 
circulating  fluid. 

To  illustrate  this  fact  of  dilution  I  perform  a  simple  experiment.  Into 
a  bladder  is  placed  a  mixture  consisting  of  equal  parts  of  alcohol  and  dis- 
tilled water.  Into  the  neck  of  the  bladder  a  long  glass  tube  is  inserted  and 
firmly  tied.  Then  the  bladder  is  immersed  in  a  saline  fluid  representing 
an  artificial  serum  of  blood.  The  result  is,  that  the  alcohol  in  the  bladder 
absorbs  water  from  the  surrounding  saline  solution,  and  thereby  a  column 
of  fluid  passes  up  into  the  glass  tube.  A  second  mixture  of  alcohol  and 
water,  in  the  proportion  this  time  of  one  part  of  alcohol  to  two  of  water, 
is  put  into  another  bladder  immersed  in  like  manner  in  an  artificial 
serum.  In  this  instance  a  little  fluid  also  passes  from  the  outside  into  the 
bladder,  so  that  there  is  a  rise  of  water  in  the  tube,  but  less  than  in  the 
previous  instance.  A  third  mixture,  consisting  of  one  part  of  alcohol  with 
three  parts  of  water,  is  placed  in  another  little  bladder,  and  is  also  sus- 
pended in  the  artificial  serum.  In  this  case  there  is,  for  a  time,  a  small 
rise  of  fluid  in  the  tube  connected  with  the  bladder;  but  after  awhile, 
owing  to  the  dilution  which  took  place,  a  current  from  within  outward 
sets  in,  and  the  tube  becomes  empty.  Thus  each  bladder  charged  originally 
with  the  same  quantity  of  fluid  contains  at  last  a  different  quantity.  The 
first  contains  more  than  it  did  originally,  the  second  only  a  little  more,  the 
third  a  little  less.  From  the  third,  absorption  takes  place,  and  if  I  keep 
changing  and  replacing  the  outer  fluid  which  surrounds  the  bladder  with 
fresh  serum,  I  can  in  time,  owing  to  the  double  current  of  water  into  the 
bladder  through  its  coats,  and  of  water  and  alcohol  out  of  the  bladder  into 
the  serum,  remove  all  the  alcohol.  In  this  way  it  is  removed  from  the 
stomach  into  the  circulating  blood  after  it  has  been  swallowed.  When  we 


138  THE     CIRCULATION.  [128/,128g. 

to  the  air,  it  absorbs  moisture  and  becomes  diluted ; 
at  the  same  time,  the  spirit  itself  evaporates.  The 
commercial  or  proof-spirit  is  about  one  half  water; 
the  strongest  holds  ten  per  cent. ;  and  to  obtain  ab- 
solute or  waterless  alcohol,  requires  careful  distilla- 
tion in  connection  with  some  substance,  as  lime,  that 
has  a  still  greater  affinity  for  water,  and  so  can 
despoil  the  alcohol. 

Alcohol  in  its  Destructive  Relation  to  Plant  and 
Animal  Life. — If  we  pour  a  little  quantity  of  strong 
spirits  upon  a  growing  plant  in  our  garden  or  con- 
servatory, we  shall  soon  see  it  shrivel  and  die.  If  we 
apply  it  to  insects  or  small  reptiles  which  we  may 
have  captured  for  specimens  in  our  cabinet,  the  same 
potent  poison  will  procure  for  them  a  speedy  death. 
If  we  force  one  of  our  domestic  animals  to  take 
habitual  doses  of  it,  the  animal  will  not  only  strongly 
protest  against  the  unnatural  and  nauseous  potion, 
but  it  will  gradually  sicken  and  lose  all  power  for 
usefulness.  "If  I  wished,"  says  a  distinguished  En- 
glish physician,  "by  scientific  experiment  to  spoil 
for  work  the  most  perfect  specimen  of  a  working 
animal,  say  a  horse,  without  inflicting  mechanical 
injury,  I  could  choose  no  better  agent  for  the  pur-- 
pose of  the  experiment  than  alcohol."  * 

dilute  alcohol  with  water  before  drinking  it,  we  quicken  its  absorption. 
If  we  do  not  dilute  it  sufficiently,  it  is  diluted  in  the  stomach  by  transuda- 
tion  of  water  in  the  stomach,  until  the  required  reduction  for  its  absorp- 
tion; the  current  then  sets  in  toward  the  blood,  and  passes  into  the 
circulating  canals  by  the  veins. — RICHARDSON. 

*  "  The  effects  produced  by  alcohol  are  common,  so  far  as  I  can  dis- 
cover, to  every  animal.  Alcohol  is  a  universal  intoxicant,  and  in  the 
higher  orders  of  animals  is  capable  of  inducing  the  most  systematic  phe- 


128?,128A.]  ALCOHOL     IN     WINE,     ETC.  139 

Alcohol  in  Wine,  Beer,  and  Cider  Identical  with 
Alcohol  in  Ardent  Spirits. — In  all  liquors  the  active 
principle  is  alcohol.  It  comprises  from  six  to  eight 
per  cent,  of  ale  and  porter,  seven  to  seventeen  per 
cent,  of  wine,  and  forty  to  fifty  per  cent,  of  brandy 
and  whiskey.  All  these  may  therefore  be  considered 
as  alcohol  more  or  less  diluted  with  water  and  fla- 
vored with  various  aromatics.  The  taste  of  different 
liquors  —  as  brandy,  gin,  beer,  cider,  etc.  —  may  vary 
greatly,  but  they  all  produce  certain  physiological 
effects,  due  to  their  common  ingredient  —  alcohol. 
u  In  whatever  form  it  enters,"  says  Dr.  Richardson, 
"  whether  as  spirit,  wine,  or  ale,  matters  little  when 
its  specific  influence  is  kept  steadily  in  view.  To 
say  this  man  only  drinks  ale,  that  man  only  drinks 
wine,  while  a  third  drinks  spirits,  is  merely  to  say, 
when  the  apology  is  unclothed,  that  all  drink  the 
same  danger."  In  other  words,  the  poisonous  nature 
of  alcohol,  and  the  effects  which  result  when  it  is 
taken  into  the  stomach,  are  definite  and  immutable 
facts,  which  are  not  dependent  upon  any  particular 
name  or  disguise  under  which  the  poison  finds  en- 
trance. 

We  shall  learn,  as  we  study  the  influence  of  alco- 
hol upon  the  human  system,  that  one  of  its  most 
subtle  characteristics  is  the  progressive  appetite  for 


nomena  of  disease.  But  it  is  reserved  for  man  himself  to  exhibit  these 
phenomena  in  their  purest  form,  and  to  present,  through  them,  in  the 
morbid  conditions  belonging  to  his  age,  a  distinct  pathology.  Bad  as  this 
is,  it  might  be  worse ;  for  if  the  evils  of  alcohol  were  made  to  extend 
equally  to  animals  lower  than  man,  we  should  soon  have  none  that  were 
tamable,  none  that  were  workable,  and  none  that  were  eatable." 


140  THE     CIRCULATION.  [I28h,  129. 

itself  (p.  185)  which  it  induces,  an  appetite  which, 
in  many  cases,  is  formed  long  before  its  unhappy 
subject  is  aware  of  his  danger.  The  intelligent  pupil, 
who  knows  how  to  reason  from  cause  to  effect,  needs 
hardly  to  be  told,  in  view  of  this  physical  truth, 
of  the  peril  that  lies  in  the  first  draught  of  any 
fermented  liquor,  even  though  it  be  so  seemingly 
harmless  as  a  glass  of  home-brewed  beer  or  "  slightly- 
beaded"  cider.  Few  of  us  really  understand  our 
own  inherent  weakness  or  the  hereditary  proclivities 
(p.  186)  that  may  be  lurking  in  our  blood,  ready  to 
master  us  when  opportunity  invites ;  but  we  may 
be  tolerably  certain  that  if  we  resolutely  refuse  to 
tamper  with  cider,  beer,  or  wine,  we  shall  not  fall 
into  temptation  before  rum,  gin,  or  brandy.  Since 
we  know  that  in  all  fermented  beverages  there  is 
present  the  same  treacherous  element,  alcohol,  we 
are  truly  wise  only  when  we  decline  to  measure 
arms  in  any  way  with  an  enemy  so  seductive  in  its 
advances,  so  insidious  in  its  influence,  and  so  terrible 
in  its  triumph.* 

*  Aside  from  all  considerations  of  physical,  mental,  and  moral  injury 
wrought  by  the  use  of  alcoholic  drinks,  every  young  man  may  well  take 
into  account  the  damaging  effect  of  such  a  dangerous  habit  upon  his  busi- 
ness prospects.  Careful  business  men  are  becoming  more  and  more  unwill- 
ing to  take  into  their  employ  any  person  addicted  to  liquor-drinking. 
Within  the  past  few  years  the  officers  of  several  railroads,  having  found 
that  a  considerable  portion  of  their  losses  could  be  directly  traced  to  the 
drinking  habits  of  some  one  or  more  of  their  employes,  have  ordered  the 
dismissal  of  all  persons  in  their  service  who  were  known  to  use  intoxicants, 
with  the  additional  provision  that  persons  thus  discharged  should  never  be 
re-instated.  Many  Eastern  manufactories  have  adopted  similar  rules.  All 
mercantile  agencies  now  report  the  habits  of  business  men  in  this  re«pect, 
and  some  life-insurance  companies  refuse  to  insure  habitual  drinkers,  re- 
garding such  risks  as  "  extra-hazardous." 


129,130.]       GENERAL     EFFECT     OF     ALCOHOL.  141 

Let  us  now  consider  the  physiological  effects  of 
alcohol  upon  the  organs  immediately  connected  with 
the  circulation  of  the  blood. 

General  Effect  of  Alcohol  upon  the  Circulation. — 
During  the  experiment  described  on  page  118,  the 
influence  of  alcohol  upon  the  blood  may  be  beauti- 
fully tested.  Place  on  the  web  of  the  frog's  foot  a 
drop  of  dilute  spirit.  The  blood-vessels  immediately 
expand— an  effect  known  as  "  Vascular  enlargement:' 
Channels  before  unseen  open,  and  the  blood-disks  fly 
along  at  a  brisker  rate.  Next,  touch  the  membrane 
with  a  drop  of  pure  spirit.  The  blood  channels 
quickly  contract ;  the  cells  slacken  their  speed ;  and, 
finally,  all  motion  ceases.  The  flesh  shrivels  up  and 
dies.  The  circulation  thus  stopped  is  stopped  forever. 
The  part  affected  will  in  time  slough  off.  Alcohol 
has  killed  it. 

The  influence  of  alcohol  upon  the  human  system 
is  very  similar.  When  strong,  as  in  spirits,  it  acts 
as  an  irritant,  narcotic  poison  (p.  142,  note).  Di- 
luted, as  in  fermented  liquors,  it  dilates  the  blood- 
vessels, quickens  the  circulation,  hastens  the  heart- 
throbs, and  accelerates  the  respiration. 

The  Effect  of  Alcohol  upon  the  Heart.— What 
means  this  rapid  flow  of  the  blood?  It  shows  that 
the  heart  is  overworking.  The  nerves  that  lead  to 
the  minute  capillaries  and  regulate  the  passage  of 
the  vital  current  through  the  extreme  parts  of  the 
body,  are  paralyzed  by  this  active  narcotic.  The 
tiny  blood-vessels  at  once  expand.  This  "Vascular 
enlargement"  removes  the  resistance  to  the  passage 


THE     CIRCULATION.  [130,131. 

of    the    blood,    and    a    rapid    beating    of    the    heart 
results.* 

Careful  experiments  show  that  two  ounces  of  al- 
cohol—  an  amount  contained  in  the  daily  potations 
of  a  very  moderate  ale  or  whiskey  drinker — increase 
the  heart-beats  six  thousand  in  twenty-four  hours; — 
a  degree  of  work  represented  by  that  of  lifting  up  a 
weight  of  seven  tons  to  a  height  of  one  foot.  Re- 
ducing this  sum  to  ounces  and  dividing,  we  find 
that  the  heart  is  driven  to  do  extra  work  equivalent 
to  lifting  seven  ounces  one  foot  high  one  thousand 
four  hundred  and  ninety-three  times  each  hour !  No 
wonder  that  the  drinker  feels  a  reaction,  a  physical 
languor,  after  the  earliest  effects  of  his  indulgence 
have  passed  away.  The  heart  flags,  the  brain  and 
the  muscles  feel  exhausted,  and  rest  and  sleep  are 
imperatively  demanded.  During  this  time  of  excite- 
ment, the  machinery  of  life  has  really  been  "  running 

*  Dr.  B.  W.  Richardson's  experiments  tend  to  prove  that  this  appar- 
ently stimulating  action  of  alcohol  upon  the  heart  is  due  to  the  paralysis 
of  the  nerves  that  control  the  capillaries  (Note,  p.  208),  which  ordinarily 
check  the  flow  of  the  blood  (p.  117).  The  heart,  like  other  muscles  under 
the  influence  of  alcohol,  really  loses  power,  and  contracts  less  vigorously 
(p.  183).  Dr.  Palmer,  of  the  University  of  Michigan,  also  claims  that  alco- 
hol, in  fact,  diminishes  the  strength  of  the  heart.  Prof.  Martin,  of  Johns 
Hopkins  University,  from  a  series  of  carefully  conducted  experiments  upon 
dogs,  concludes  that  blood  containing  one  fourth  per  cent,  of  alcohol  almost 
invariably  diminishes  within  a  minute  the  work  done  by  the  heart;  blood 
containing  one  half  per  cent,  always  diminishes  it,  and  may  reduce  the 
amount  pumped  out  by  the  left  ventricle  so  that  it  is  not  sufficient  to 
supply  the  coronary  arteries.  One  hundred  years  ago,  alcohol  was  always 
spoken  of  as  a  stimulant.  Modern  experiment  and  investigation  challenged 
that  definition,  and  it  is  now  classified  as  a  narcotic.  There  are,  however, 
able  physicians  who  maintain  that,  taken  in  small  doses,  and  under  certain 
physical  conditions,  it  has  the  effect  of  a  stimulant.  All  agree  that,  when 
taken  in  any  amount,  it  tends  to  create  an  appetite  for  more. 


131,132.]    INFLUENCE    UPON    THE    MEMBRANES.      143 

down."  "  It  is  hard  work,"  says  Richardson,  "  to  fight 
against  alcohol ;  harder  than  rowing,  walking,  wrest- 
ling, coal-heaving,  or  the  tread-mill  itself." 

All  this  is  only  the  first  effect  of  alcohol  upon  the 
heart.  Long-continued  use  of  this  disturbing  agent 
causes  a  "Degeneration  of  the  muscular  fiber,"*  so 
that  the  heart  loses  its  old  power  to  drive  the  blood, 
and,  after  a  time,  fails  to  respond  even  to  the  spur 
of  the  excitant  that  has  urged  it  to  ruin. 
\f  Influence  upon  the  Membranes. — The  flush  of  the 
face  and  the  blood-shot  eye,  that  are  such  noticeable 
effects  of  even  a  small  quantity  of  liquor,  indicate 
the  condition  of  all  the  internal  organs.  The  deli- 
cate linings  of  the  stomach,  heart,  brain,  liver,  and 
lungs  are  reddened,  and  every  tiny  vein  is  inflamed, 
like  the  blushing  nose  itself.  If  the  use  of  liquor  is 
habitual,  this  "Vascular  enlargement,"  that  at  first 
slowly  passed  away  after  each  indulgence,  becomes 
permanent,  and  now  the  discolored,  blotched  skin 
reveals  the  state  of  the  entire  mucous  membrane. 


*  This  "Degeneration"  of  the  various  tissues  of  the  body,  we  shall 
find,  as  we  proceed,  is  one  of  the  most  marked  effects  of  alcoholized  blood. 
The  change  consists  in  an  excess  of  liquid,  or,  more  commonly,  in  a  deposit 
of  fat.  This  fatty  matter  is  not  an  increase  of  the  organ,  but  it  takes  the 
place  of  a  part  of  its  fiber,  thus  weakening  the  structure,  and  reducing  the 
power  of  the  tissue  to  perform  its  function.  Almost  every- where  in  the 
body  we  thus  find  cells  —  muscle-cells,  liver-cells,  nerve-cells,  as  the  case 
may  be  —  changing  one  by  one,  under  the  influence  of  this  potent  dis- 
organizer,  into  unhealthy  fat-cells.  "Alcohol  has  been  well  termed,"  says 
the  London  Lancet,  "  the  '  Genius  of  Degeneration.'  " 

The  cause  of  this  degeneration  can  be  easily  explained.  The  increased 
activity  of  the  circulation  compels  a  correspondingly-increased  activity  of 
the  cell -changes :  but  the  essential  condition  of  healthful  change  —  the 
presence  of  additional  oxygen— is  wanting  (see  p.  143),  and  the  operation  is 
imperfectly  performed.— BKODIE. 


144  THE     CIRCULATION.  [132,133. 

We  learned  on  page  55  what  a  peculiar  office  the 
membrane  fills  in  nourishing  the  organs  it  enwraps. 
Any  thing  that  disturbs  its  delicate  structure  must 
mar  its  efficiency.  Alcohol  has  a  wonderful  affinity 
for  water.  To  satisfy  this  greed,  it  will  absorb  moist- 
ure from  the  tissues  with  which  it  comes  in  contact, 
as  well  as  from  their  lubricating  juices.  The  enlarge- 
ment of  the  blood-vessels  and  their  permanent  con- 
gestion must  interfere  with  the  filtering  action  of 
the  membrane.  In  time,  all  the  membranes  become 
dry,  thickened,  and  hardened ;  they  then  shrink  upon 
the  sensitive  nerve,  or  stiffen  the  joint,  or  enfeeble 
the  muscle.  The  function  of  these  membranes  being 
deranged,  they  will  not  furnish  the  organs  with  per- 
fected material,  and  the  clogged  pores  will  no  longer 
filter  their  natural  fluids.  Every  organ  in  the  body 
will  feel  this  change. 

Effect  upon  the  Blood.* — From  the  stomach,  alco- 
hol passes  directly  into  the  circulation,  and  so,  in  a 
few  minutes,  is  swept  through  the  entire  system. 
If  it  be  present  in  sufficient  amount  and  strength, 
its  eager  desire  for  water  will  lead  it  to  absorb  moist- 
ure from  the  red  corpuscles,  causing  them  to  shrink, 
change  their  form,  harden,  and  lose  some  of  their 
ability  to  carry  oxygen  ;  it  may  even  make  them 
adhere  in  masses,  and  so  hinder  their  passage  through 
the  tiny  capillaries. — RICHARDSON. 

*  Alcohol  acts  upon  the  oxygen-carrier,  the  coloring  matter  of  the  red 
corpuscles,  causing  it  to  settle  in  one  part  of  the  globule,  or  even  to  leave 
the  corpuscle,  and  deposit  itself  in  other  elements  of  the  blood.  Thus  the 
red  corpuscle  may  become  colorless,  distorted,  shrunken,  and  even  entirely 
broken  up.— DR.  GK  B.  HABRIMAN. 


133.]  EFFECT     UPON     THE     LUNGS.  145 

With  most  persons  who  indulge  freely  in  alcoholic 
drinks,  the  blood  is  thin,  the  avidity  of  alcohol  for 
water  causing  the  burning  thirst  so  familiar  to  all 
drinkers,  and  hence  the  use  of  enormous  quantities 
of  water,  oftener  of  beer,  which  unnaturally  dilutes 
the  blood.  The  blood  then  easily  flows  from  a 
wound,  and  renders  an  accident  or  surgical  operation 
very  dangerous. 

When  the  blood  tends,  as  in  other  cases  of  an  ex- 
cessive use  of  spirits,  to  coagulate  in  the  capillaries,* 
there  is  a  liability  of  an  obstruction  to  the  flow  of 
the  vital  current  through  the  heart,  liver,  lungs,  etc., 
that  may  cause  disease,  and  in  the  brain  may  lay 
the  foundation  of  paralysis,  or,  in  extreme  cases,  of 
apoplexy. 

Wherever  the  alcoholized  blood  goes  through  the 
body,  it  bathes  the  delicate  cells  with  an  irritating 
narcotic  poison,  instead  of  a  bland,  nutritious  sub- 
stance. 

Effect  upon  the  Lungs. — Here  we  can  see  how 
certainly  the  presence  of  alcohol  interferes  with  the 
red  corpuscles  in  their  task  of  carrying  oxygen. 
"Even  so  small  a  quantity  as  one  part  of  alcohol  to 

*  The  blood  is  rendered  unduly  thin,  or  is  coagulated,  according  to  the 
amount  of  alcohol  that  is  carried  into  the  circulatory  system.  "The  spirit 
may  fix  the  water  with  the  fibrin,  and  thus  destroy  the  power  of  coagula- 
tion ;  or  it  may  extract  the  water  so  determinately  as  to  produce  coagula- 
tion. This  explains  why,  in  acute  cases  of  poisoning  by  alcohol,  the  blood 
is  sometimes  found  quite  fluid,  at  other  times  firmly  coagulated  in  the 
vessels."— B.  W.  RICHARDSON. 

Reckless  persons  have  sometimes  drunk  a  large  quantity  of  liquor  for  a 
wager,  and,  as  the  result  of  their  folly,  have  died  instantly.  The  whole  of  the 
blood  in  the  heart  having  coagulated,  the  circulation  was  stopped,  and  death 
inevitably  ensued. 


146  THE     CIKCULATION.  [133,134. 

five  hundred  of  the  blood  will  materially  check  the 
absorption  of  oxygen  in  the  lungs." 

The  cells,  unable  to  take  up  oxygen,  retain  their 
carbonic-acid  gas,  and  so  return  from  the  lungs,  car- 
rying back,  to  poison  the  system,  the  refuse  matter 
the  body  has  sought  to  throw  off.  Thus  the  lungs 
no  longer  furnish  properly  oxygenized  blood. 

The  rapid  stroke  of  the  heart,  already  spoken  of, 
is  followed  by  a  corresponding  quickening  of  the 
respiration.  The  flush  of  the  cheek  is  repeated  in 
the  reddened  mucous  membrane  lining  the  lungs. 

When  this  "  Vascular  enlargement "  becomes  per- 
manent, and  the  highly-albuminous  membrane  of  the 
air-cells  is  hardened  and  thickened  as  well  as  con- 
gested, the  Osmose  of  the  gases  to  and  fro  through 
its  pores  can  no  longer  be  prompt  and  free  as  before. 
Even  when  the  effect  passes  off  in  a  few  days  after 
the  occasional  indulgence,  there  has  been,  during 
that  time,  a  diminished  supply  of  the  life-giving 
oxygen  furnished  to  the  system ;  weakness  follows, 
and,  in  the  case  of  hard  drinkers,  there  is  a  marked 
liability  to  epidemics.* 

Physicians  tell  us,  also,  that  there  is  a  peculiar 
form  of  consumption  known  as  Alcoholic  Phthisis 
caused  by  long  -  continued  and  excessive  use  of 

*  There  is  no  doubt  that  alcohol  alters  and  impairs  tissues  so  that 
they  are  more  prone  to  disease. —DR.  Q-.  K.  SABINE.  A  volume  of  sta- 
tistics could  be  filled  with  quotations  like  the  following :  "  Mr.  Huber,  who 
saw  in  one  town  in  Russia  two  thousand  one  hundred  and  sixty  persons 
perish  with  the  cholera  in  twenty  days,  said :  '  It  is  a  most  remarkable  cir- 
cumstance that  persons  given  to  drink  have  been  swept  away  like  flies.  In 
Tiflis,  with  twenty  thousand  inhabitants,  every  drunkard  has  fallen,— all 
are  dead,  not  one  remaining." 


134,135.]  PKACTICAL     QUESTIONS.  147 

liquor.  It  generally  attacks  those  whose  splendid 
physique  has  enabled  them  to  "  drink  deep "  with 
apparent  impunity.  This  type  of  consumption  ap- 
pears late  in  life  and  is  considered  incurable.  Severe 
cases  of  pneumonia  are  also  generally  fatal  with 
inebriates.* 


PRACTICAL     QUESTIONS, 

1.  Why  does  a  dry,  cold  atmosphere  favorably  affect  catarrh? 

2.  Why  should  we  put  on  extra  covering  when  we  lie  down  to  sleep? 

3.  Is  it  well  to  throw  off  our  coats  or  shawls  when  we  come  in  heated 
from  a  long  walk? 

4.  Why  are  close-fitting  collars  or  neck-ties  injurious? 

5.  Which  side  of  the  heart  is  the  more  liable  to  inflammation? 

6.  What  gives  the  toper  his  red  nose? 

7.  Why  does  not  the  arm  die  when  the   surgeon  ties  the   principal 
artery  leading  to  it? 

8.  When  a  fowl  is  angry,  why  does  its  comb  redden? 

9.  Why  does  a  fat  man  endure  cold  better  than  a  lean  one? 

10.  Why  does  one  become  thin  during  a  long  sickness? 

11.  What  would  you  do  if  you  should  come  home  "wet  to  the  skin"? 

12.  When  the  cold  air  strikes  the   face,  why  does  it  first  blanch  and 
then  flush?  . 

13.  What  must  be  the  effect  of  tight  lacing  upon  the  circulation  of  the 
blood? 

14.  Do  you  know  the  position  of  the  large  arteries  in  the  limbs,  so  that 
in  case  of  accident  you  could  stop  the  flow  of  blood? 

15.  When  a  person  is  said  to  be  good-hearted,  is  it  a  physical  truth? 

16.  Why  does  a  hot  foot-bath  relieve  the  headache? 

17.  Why  does  the  body  of  a  drowned  or  strangled  person  turn  blue? 

18.  What  are  the  little  "kernels"  in  the  arm-pits? 

19.  When  we  are  excessively  warm,  would  the  thermometer  show  any 
rise  of  temperature  in  the  body  ? 

20.  What  forces  besides  that  of  the  heart  aid  in  propelling  the  blood? 

21.  Why  can  the  pulse  be  best  felt  in  the  wrist? 

22.  Why  are  starving  people  exceedingly  sensitive  to  any  jar? 

23.  Why  will  friction,  an  application  of  horse-radish  leaves,  or  a  blister, 
relieve  internal  congestion  ? 

24.  Why  are  students  very  liable  to  cold  feet? 


The  Influence  of  Alcohol  is  continued  in  the  chapter  on  Digestion. 


148  THE     CIRCULATION.  [135,136. 

25.  Is  the  proverb  that  "blood  is  thicker  than  water"  literally  true? 

26.  "What  is  the  effect  upon  the  circulation  of  "  holding  the  breath  "  ? 

27.  Which  side  of  the  heart  is  the  stronger? 

28.  How  is  the  heart  itself  nourished?* 

29.  Doe^  any  venous  blood  reach  the  heart  without  coming  through  the 
venae  cavee? 

30.  "What  would  you  do,  in  the  absence  of  a  surgeon,  in  the  case  of  a 
severe  wound?     (See  p.  258.) 

31.  What  would  you  do  in  the  case  of  a  fever?     (See  p.  263.) 

32.  What  is  the  most  injurious  effect  of  alcohol  upon  the  blood? 

33.  Are  our  bodies  the  same  from  day  to  day? 

34.  Show  how  life  comes  by  death. 

35.  Is  not  the  truth  just  stated  as  applicable  to  moral  and  intellectual, 
as  to  physical  life  ? 

36.  What  vein  begins  and  ends  with  capillaries  ?    Am.  The  portal  vein 
commences  with  capillaries   in  the  digestive   organs,  and   ends  with  the 
same  kind  of  vessels  in  the  liver.    (See  p.  166.) 

37.  By  what  process  is  alcohol  always  formed  ?    Does  it  exist  in  nature  ? 

38.  What  percentage  of  alcohol  is  contained  in  the  different  kinds  of 
liquor  ? 

39.  Does  cider  possess  the  same  intoxicating  principle  as  brandy? 

40.  Describe  the  general  properties  of  alcohol. 

41.  Show  that  alcohol  is  a  narcotic  poison. 

42.  If  alcohol  is  not  a  stimulant,  how  does  it  cause  the  heart  to  over- 
work? 

43.  Why  is  the  skin  of  a  drunkard  always  red  and  blotched? 

*     44.  What  danger  is  there  in  occasionally  using  alcoholic  drinks? 

45.  What  is  meant  by  a  fatty  degeneration  of  the  heart? 

46.  What  keeps  the  blood  in   circulation  between   the    beats   of   the 
heart? 

47.  What  is  the  office  of  the  capillaries?    (See  note,  p.  373.) 

48.  Does  alcohol  interfere  with  this  function? 

49.  How  does  alcohol  interfere  with  the  regular  office   of   the   mem- 
branes ? 

50.  How  does  it  check  the  process  of  oxidation  ? 


*  The  coronary  artery,  springing  from  the  aorta  just  after  its  origin,  carries  blood 
to  the  muscular  walls  of  the  heart ;  the  venous  blood  comes  back  through  the  coronary 
veins,  and  empties  directly  into  the  right  auricle. 


VI. 

DIGESTION  AND  FOOD. 


"A  MAN  puts  some  ashes  in  a  hill  of  corn  and  thereby  doubles  its 
yield.  Then  he  says,  'My  ashes  have  I  turned  into  corn.'  Weak  from 
his  labor,  he  eats  of  his  corn,  and  new  life  comes  to  him.  Again,  he  says, 
'I  have  changed  my  corn  into  a  man.'  This  also  he  feels  to  be  the 
truth. 

"It  is  the  problem  of  the  body,  remember,  that  we  are  discussing.  A 
man  is  more  than  the  body;  to  confound  the  body  and  the  man  is  worse 
than  confounding  the  body  and  the  clothing."— JOHN  DABBY. 


ANALYSIS  OF  DIGESTION  AND  FOOD. 


1.  WHY  WE  NEED  FOOD. 

2.  WHAT  FOOD  DOES. 

3.  KINDS  or  FOOD 


1.  Nitrogenous. 

2.  Carbonaceous.... 

3.  Minerals. 


a.  The  Sugars. 

b.  The  Fats. 


4.  ONE  KIND  is  INSUFFICIENT. 

5.  OBJECT  OF  DIGESTION. 


6.  PROCESS  OF  DIGESTION. 


—  General  Description. 

1.  Mastication  and  In-  j  a    The  Saliva. 

salivation  ..........   |  b.  Process  of  Swallowing 

(  a.  The  Stomach. 

2.  Gastric  Digestion  .  .  .  •{  b.  The  Gastric  Juice. 

(  c. 


3.  Intestinal  Digestion.  \ 


The  Chyme. 
—  Description. 

a.  The  Bile. 

b.  The  Pancreatic  Juice. 

c.  The  Small  Intestine. 


4.  Absorption 

7.  COMPLEXITY  OF  THE  PROCESS  OF  DIGESTION. 

1.  Length  of  Time  required. 


a.  By  the  Veins. 

b.  By  the  Lacteals. 


8.  HYGIENE. 


2.  Value    of    different 
kinds  of  Food. 


a.  Beef. 

b.  Mutton. 

c.  Lamb. 

d.  Pork. 

e.  Fish. 

f.  Milk. 


3.  The  Stimulants. 


II 


lea. 
Chocolate. 


4.  Cooking  of  Food. 

5.  Rapid  Eating. 

6.  Quantity  and  Quality  of  Food. 

7.  When  Food  should  be  taken. 

8.  How  Food  should  be  taken. 

9.  Need  of  a  Variety. 

THE  WONDERS  OF  DIGESTION. 


10.  DISEASES.. 


j  1.  Dyspepsia. 


11.  ALCOHOLIC  DRINKS  J  & 
AND  NARCOTICS.         "    g 


The  Mumps. 

1.  Is  Alcohol  a  Food  ? 

2.  Effect  upon  the  Digestion. 

3.  Effect  upon  the  Liver. 

4.  Effect  upon  the  Kidneys. 

5.  Does  Alcohol  impart  heat  ? 

6.  Does  Alcohol  impart  strength  ? 

7.  The  Effect  upon  the  Waste  of  the  Body. 

8.  Alcohol   creates  a  progressive  appetite   for  it- 

self. 

9.  Law  of  Heredity. 


DIGESTION    AND    FOOD. 

Why  We  Need  Food. — We  have  learned  that  our 
bodies  are  constantly  giving  off  waste  matter — the 
products  of  the  fire,  or  oxidation,  as  the  chemist 
terms  the  change  going  on  within  us  (Note,  p.  107). 
A  man  without  food  will  starve  to  death  in  a  few 
days,  i.  e.,  the  oxygen  will  have  consumed  all  the 
available  flesh  of  his  body.*  To  replace  the  daily 
outgo,  we  need  about  two  and  a  quarter  pounds  of 
food,  and  three  pints  of  drink,  f 

*  The  stories  current  in  the  newspapers  of  persons  who  live  for  years 
without  food,  are,  of  course,  untrue.  The  case  of  the  Welsh  Fasting  Girl, 
which  excited  general  interest  throughout  Great  Britain,  and  was  exten- 
sively copied  in  our  own  press,  is  in  point.  She  had  succeeded  in  deceiving 
not  only  the  public,  but,  as  some  claim,  her  own  parents.  At  last  a  strict 
watch  was  set  by  day  and  night,  precluding  the  possibility  of  her  receiving 
any  food  except  at  the  hands  of  the  committee,  from  whom  she  steadily 
refused  it.  In  a  few  days  she  died  from  actual  starvation.  The  youth  of 
the  girl,  the  apparent  honesty  of  the  parents,  and  the  tragical  sequel,  make 
it  one  of  the  most  remarkable  cases  of  the  kind  on  record. 

t  Every  cell  in  the  tissues  is  full  of  matter  ready  to  set  free  at  call  its 
stored-up  energy— derived  from  the  meat,  bread,  and  vegetables  we  have 
eaten.  This  energy  will  pass  off  quietly  when  the  organs  are  in  compara- 
tive rest,  but  violently  when  the  muscles  contract  with  force.  When  we 
send  an  order  through  a  nerve  to  any  part  of  the  body,  a  series  of  tiny 
explosions  run  the  entire  length  of  the  nerve,  just  as  fire  runs  through  a 
train  of  gunpowder.  The  muscle  receives  the  stimulus,  and,  contracting, 
liberates  its  energy.  The  cells  of  nerve  or  muscle,  whose  contents  have 
thus  exploded,  as  it  were,  are  useless,  and  must  be  carried  off  by  the  blood, 
just  as  ashes  must  be  swept  from  the  hearth,  and  new  fuel  be  supplied  to 
keep  up  a  fire. 


152  DIGESTION     AND     FOOD.  [139,140. 

Including  the  eight  hundred  pounds  of  oxygen 
taken  from  the  air,  a  man  uses  in  a  year  about  a  ton 
and  a  half  of  material.*  Yet  during  this  entire 
time  his  weight  may  have  been  nearly  uniform. f 
Our  bodies  are  but  molds,  in  which  a  certain  quan- 
tity of  matter,  checked  for  a  time  on  its  ceaseless 
round,  receives  a  definite  form.  They  may  be 
likened,  says  Huxley,  to  an  eddy  in  the  river,  which 
retains  its  shape  for  awhile,  yet  every  instant  each 
particle  of  water  is  changing. 

What  Food  Does. — We  make  no  force  ourselves. 
We  can  only  use  that  which  nature  provides  for 
us.t  All  our  strength  comes  from  the  food  we  eat. 
Food  is  force  —  that  is,  it  contains  a  latent  power 


*  The  following  is  the  daily  ration  of  a  United  States  soldier.  It  is  said 
to  be  the  most  generous  in  the  world : 

Bread  or  flour 22  ounces. 

Fresh  or  salt  beef  (or  pork  or  bacon,  12  oz.)        .       .       20 
Potatoes  (three -times  per  week)    ......    16 

Bice 1.6 

Coffee  (or  tea,  0.24  oz.)     .       .    •  .       .       i       .       .       .      1.6      " 

Sugar 2.4      " 

Beans 0.64  gill. 

Vinegar 0.32    " 

Salt 0-16    " 

t  If,  however,  he  were  kept  on  the  scale-pan  of  a  sensitive  balance,  he 
would  find  that  his  weight  is  constantly  changing,  increasing  with  each 
meal,  and  then  gradually  decreasing. 

t  We  draw  from  Nature  at  once  our  substance,  and  the  force  by  which 
we  operate  upon  her ;  being,  so  far,  parts  of  her  great  system,  immersed  in 
it  for  a  short  time  and  to  a  small  extent.  Enfolding  us,  as  it  were,  within 
her  arms,  Nature  lends  us  her  forces  to  expend ;  we  receive  them,  and  pass 
them  on,  giving  them  the  impress  of  our  will,  and  bending  them  to  our 

designs,  for  a  little  while;    and  then Yes;   then  it  is  all  one.    The  great 

procession  pauses  not,  nor  flags  a  moment,  for  our  fall.  The  powers  whicl 
Nature  lent  to  us  she  resumes  to  herself,  or  lends,  it  may  be,  to  another; 
the  use  which  we  have  made  of  them,  or  might  have  made  and  did  not, 
is  written  in  her  book  forever— Health  and  its  Conditions. 


140,141.]  KINDS     OF     FOOD     NEEDED.  153 

which  it  gives  up  when  it  is  decomposed.*  Oxygen 
is  the  magic  key  which  unlocks  for  our  use  this  hid- 
den store,  f  Putting  food  into  our  bodies  is  like 
placing  a  .tense  spring  within  a  watch  ;  every  motion 
of  the  body  is  only  a  new  direction  given  to  this 
food-force,  as  every  movement  of  the  hand  on  the 
dial  is  but  the  manifestation  of  the  power  of  the 
bent  spring  in  the  watch.  We  use  the  pent-up  ener- 
gies of  meat,  bread,  and  vegetables  which  are  placed 
at  our  service,  and  transfer  them  to  a  higher  theater 
of  action.^ 

Kinds  of  Food  Needed. — From  what  has  been 
said  it  is  clear  that,  in  order  to  produce  heat  and 
force,  we  need  something  that  will  burn,  i.e.,  with 
which  oxygen  can  combine.  Experiment  has  proved 
that  to  build  up  every  organ,  and  keep  the  body 

*  This  force  is  chemical  affinity.  It  binds  together  the  molecules  which 
compose  the  food  we  eat.  When  oxygen  tears  the  molecules  to  pieces  and 
makes  them  up  into  smaller  ones,  the  force  is  set  free.  As  we  shall  learn 
in  Physics,  it  can  be  turned  into  heat,  muscular  motion,  electricity,  etc. 
The  principle  that  the  different  kinds  of  force  can  be  changed  into  one 
another  without  loss,  is  called  the  Conservation  of  Energy,  and  is  one  of 
the  grandest  discoveries  of  modern  science.— Poplar  Physics,  pages  35,  39, 
278. 

t  We  have  spoken  of  the  mystery  that  envelops  the  process  of  the  con- 
version of  food  force  into  muscular-force  (note,  p.  107).  All  physiologists 
agree  that  muscular  power  has  its  source  in  the  chemical  decomposition  of 
certain  substances  whereby  their  potential  energy  is  released.  Probably 
some  of  the  food  undergoes  this  chemical  change  before  it  passes  out  of 
the  alimentary  canal ;  possibly  some  is  broken  up  by  the  oxygen  while  it  is 
being  swept  along  by  the  blood ;  but,  probably  by  far  the  largest  part  is 
converted  into  the  various  tissues  of  the  body,  and  finally  becomes  a  waste 
product  only  after  there  takes  place  in  the  tissue  itself  that  chemical  dis- 
organization that  sets  free  its  stored-up  power.— FOSTER'S  Physiology. 

t  It  is  a  grand  thought  that  we  can  thus  transform  what  is  common 
and  gross  into  the  refined  and  spiritual ;  that  out  of  waving  wheat,  wasting 
flesh,  running  water,  and  dead  minerals,  we  can  realize  the  glorious  possi- 
bilities of  human  life. 


154  DIGESTION     AND     FOOD.  [141,142. 

in    the    best    condition,    we    require    three    kinds    of 
food. 

1.  Nitrogenous  Food. — As  nitrogen  is  a  prominent 
constituent  of  the  tissues   of  the  body,  food  which 
contains    it    is   therefore    necessary  to   their   growth 
and  repair.*    The  most  common  forms  are  whites  of 
eggs — which   are   nearly  pure   albumen  ;    casein — the 
chief  constituent  of  cheese ;    lean  meat ;    and  gluten 
— the  viscid  substance  which  gives  tenacity  to  dough. 
Bodies  having  a  great  deal  of  nitrogen  readily  ox- 
idize.    Hence    the    peculiar    character  of  the  quick- 
changing,  force-exciting  muscle. 

2.  Carbonaceous  Food — i.  e.,  food  containing  much 
carbon — consists  of  two  kinds,  viz.,  the   sugars,  and 
the  fats. 

(1)  The  sugars  contain  hydrogen  and  oxygen  in 
the  proportion  to  form  water,  and  about  the  same 
amount  of  carbon.     They  may,  therefore,  be   consid- 
ered as  water,  with   carbon  diffused  through  it.     In 
digestion,  starch  and  gum  are  changed  to  sugar,  and 
so  are  ranked  with  this  class. 

(2)  The  fats  are  like   the  sugars  in  composition, 
but"  contain  less  oxygen,  and  not  in  the  proportion 
to  form  water.     They  combine  with  more   oxygen  in 
burning,  and  so  give  off  more  heat. 

The  non-nitrogenous  elements  of  the  food  have, 
however,  other  uses  than  to  develop  heat.f  Fat  is 

*  Since  this  kind  of  food  closely  resembles  albumen,  it  is  sometimes 
called  Albuminous.  The  term  Proteid  is  also  used. 

t  The  heat  they  produce  in  burning  may  be  turned  into  motion  of  the 
muscles,  according  to  the  principle  of  the  Conservation  of  Energy  (p.  153, 
note) ;  while  all  the  structures  of  the  body  in  their  oxidation  develop  heat. 


142,143.1  THKEE     KINDS     OF     FOOD.  155 

essential  to  the  assimilation  of  the  food,  while  sugar 
and  starch  aid  in  digestion  and  may  be  converted 
into  fat.*  Fat  and  carbonaceous  material  both  enter 
into  the  composition  of  the  various  tissues,  and 
when,  by  the  breaking-up  of  the  contractile  sub- 
stance of  the  muscle,  their  latent  energy  is  set  free, 
they  become  the  source  of  muscular  force,  as  well 
as  heat.  While  the  tendency  of  the  albuminous 
food  is  to  excite  chemical  action,  and  hence  the 
release  of  energy,  the  fats  and  carbonaceous  food 
may  be  laid  up  in  the  body  to  serve  as  a  storehouse 
of  energy  to  supply  future  needs. 

3.  Mineral  Matters. — Food  should  contain  water, 
and  certain  common  minerals,  such  as  iron,f  sul- 
phur, magnesia,  phosphorus,  salt,  and  potash.  About 
three  pints  of  water  are  needed  daily  to  dissolve  the 
food  and  carry  it  through  the  circulation,  to  float 
off  waste  matter,  to  lubricate  the  tissues,  and  by 
evaporation  to  cool  the  system  (see  p.  317).  It  also 
enters  largely  into  the  composition  of  the  body.  A 
man  weighing  one  hundred  and  fifty-four  pounds 
contains  one  hundred  pounds  of  water,  about  twelve 
gallons — enough,  if  rightly  arranged,  to  drown  him.]; 

Iron  goes  to  the  blood  disks ;   lime  combines  with 

*  In  Turkey,  the  ladies  of  the  harem,  are  fed  on  honey  and  thick  gruel, 
to  make  flesh,  which  is  considered  to  enhance  their  beauty.  The  negroes 
on  the  sugar  plantations  of  the  South  always  grow  fat  during  the  sugar- 
making  season. 

t  While  the  body  can  build  up  a  solid  from  liquid  materials  on  the  one 
hand,  on  the  other  it  can  pour  iron  through  its  veins  and  reduce  the  hard- 
est textures  to  blood.— HINTON. 

J  It  is  said  that  Blumenbach  had  a  perfect  mummy  of  an  adult  Tene- 
riffian,  which  with  the  viscera  weighed  only  seven  and  a  half  pounds. 


156  DIGESTION     AND     FOOD.  [143,144. 

phosphoric  and  carbonic  acids  to  give  solidity  to  the 
bones  and  teeth ;  phosphorus  is  essential  to  the  ac- 
tivity of  the  brain.  Salt  is  necessary  to  the  secre- 
tion of  some  of  the  digestive  fluids,  and  also  to  aid 
in  working  off  from  the  system  its  waste  products. 
These  various  minerals,  except  iron  —  sometimes 
given  as  a  medicine,  and  salt — universally  used  as  a 
condiment,*  are  contained  in  small,  but  sufficient 
quantities  in  meat,  bread,  and  vegetables. 

One  Kind  of  Food  is  Insufficient. — A  person  fed 
on  starch  alone,  would  die.  It  would  be  a  clear  case 
of  nitrogen  starvation.  On  the  other  hand,  as  nitrog- 
enous food  contains  carbon,  the  elements  of  water; 
and  various  mineral  matters,  life  could  be  supported 


*  Animals  will  i/ravel  long  distances  to  obtain  salt.  Men  will  barter 
gold  for  it;  indeed,  among  the  Gallas  and  on  the  coast  of  Sierra  Leone, 
brothers  will  sell  their  sisters,  husbands  their  wives,  and  parents  their 
children  for  salt.  In  the  district  of  Accra,  on  the  gold  coast  of  Africa,  a 
handful  of  salt  is  the  most  valuable  thing  upon  earth  after  gold,  and  will 
purchase  a  slave.  Mungo  Park  tells  us  that  with  the  Mandingoes  and  Bam- 
baras  the  use  of  salt  is  such  a  luxury  that  to  say  of  a  man  "  he  flavors  his 
food  with  salt,"  it  is  to  imply  that  he  is  rich ;  and  children  will  suck  a 
piece  of  rock-salt  as  if  it  were  sugar.  No  stronger  mark  of  respect  or  affec- 
tion can  be  shown  in  Muscovy,  than  the  sending  of  salt  from  the  tables  of 
the  rich  to  their  poorer  friends.  In  the  book  of  Leviticus  it  is  expressly 
commanded  as  one  of  the  ordinances  of  Moses,  that  every  oblation  of  meat 
upon  the  altar  shall  be  seasoned  with  salt,  without  lacking ;  and  hence  it 
is  caUed  the  Salt  of  the  Covenant  of  God.  The  Greeks  and  Romans  also 
used  salt  in  their  sacrificial  cakes ;  and  it  is  still  used  in  the  services  of  the 
Latin  church— the  " pamu,  mica,'1''  or  pinch  of  salt,  being  in  the  ceremony  of 
baptism,  put  into  the  child's  mouth,  while  the  priest  says,  "Receive  the 
salt  of  wisdom,  and  may  it  be  a  propitiation  to  thee  for  eternal  life." 
Every-where  and  almost  always,  indeed,  it  has  been  regarded  as  emblemat- 
ical of  wisdom,  wit,  and  immortality.  To  taste  a  man's  salt,  was  to  be 
bound  by  the  rites  of  hospitality ;  and  no  oath  was  more  solemn  than  that 
which  was  sworn  upon  bread  and  salt.  To  sprinkle  the  meat  with  salt  was 
to  drive  away  the  devil,  and  to  this  day,  nothing  is  more  unlucky  than  to 
spill  the  salt.— LETHEBY,  On  Food. 


144,  145.] 


THE     OBJECT     OF     DIGESTION. 


157 


45. 


on  that  alone.  But  such  a  prodigious  quantity  of 
lean  meat,  for  example,  would  be  required  to  furnish 
the  other  elements,  that  not 
only  would  it  be  very  ex- 
pensive, but  it  is  likely  that 
after  a  time  the  labor  of  di^ 
gestion  would  be  too  onerous, 
and  the  system  would  give 
up  the  task  in  despair.  The 
need  of  a  diet  containing 
both  nitrogenous  and  carbo- 
naceous elements  is  shown 
in  the  fact  that  even  in  the 
tropical  regions  oil  is  relished 
as  a  dressing  upon  salad. 
Instinct  every-where  suggests 
the  blending.  Butter  is  used 
with  bread  ;  rice  is  boiled 
with  milk ;  cheese  is  eaten 
with  maccaroni,  and  beans 

are   baked   With   pork.  The  Stomach  and  Intestines.     1, 

stomach  ;  2,  duodenum  ;  3,  small  in- 

The    Object    Of    Digestion.      testlne;  4,  termination  of  the  ileum; 

-r  „  f,       -i  -i  •        5,  caecum ;  6,  vermiform  appendix ; 

—If    Our     food    Were     Cast     dl-      7,  ascending  colon;  S,  transverse  co 

Twfhr  intr>  fhc*    Klnnrl     if    prmlrl       lon  •'   9,  descending  colon ;    W,  sig- 
)Q>  "  moid  flexure  of  the  colon ;  11,  rectum; 

not    be    used.     For   example,     12>  wieen-a  gland  whose  actim  is 

not  understood.— LEIDY'S  Anatomy. 

although  the  chemist  can  not 

see  wherein  the  albumen  of  the  egg  differs  from 
the  albumen  of  the  blood,  yet  if  it  be  injected  into 
the  veins  it  is  unavailable  for  the  purposes  required, 
and  is  thrown  out  again.  In  the  course  of  digestion 
the  food  is  modified  in  various  ways  whereby  it  is 


158  DIGESTION     AND     FOOD.  [145,146. 

fitted  for  the  use  of  the  body,  into  which  it  is  finally 
incorporated.  We  call  this  change  of  food  into  flesh 
assimilation,  a  name  for  a  work  done  solely  by  the 
vital  organs,  and  so  mysterious  in  its  nature  that 
the  wisest  physiologist  gets  only  glimpses  here  and 
there  of  its  operations.  « 

The  General  Plan  of  Digestion. — Nature  has  pro- 
vided for  this  purpose  an  entire  laboratory,  furnished 
with  a  chemist's  outfit  of  knives,  mortars,  baths, 
chemicals,"  filters,  etc.  The  food  is  (1)  chewed,  mixed 
with  the  saliva  in  the  mouth,  and  swallowed  ;  (2)  it 
is  acted  upon  by  the  gastric  juice  in  the  stomach  ; 
(3)  it  is  passed  into  the  intestines,  where  it  receives 
the  bile,  pancreatic  juice,  and  other  liquids  which 
completely  dissolve  it;*  (4)  the  nourishing  part  is 
absorbed  in  the  stomach  and  intestines,  and  thence 
thrown  into  the  blood-vessels,  whence  it  is  whirled 
through  the  body  by  the  torrent  of  the  circulation. 
These  processes  take  place  within  the  alimentary 
canal,  a  narrow  tortuous  tube  which  commences  at 
the  mouth,  and  is  about  thirty  feet  long.f 

*  Digestion,  says  Berzelius,  is  a  process  of  rinsing.  The  digestive  ap- 
paratus secretes,  and  again  absorbs  with,  the  food  which  it  has  dissolved, 
not  less  than  three  gallons  of  liquid  per  day.— BARNARD,  BIDDER,  SCHMIDT, 
and  others. 

t  The  digestive  apparatus  is  lined  with  mucous  membrane  that  pos- 
sesses functions  similar  to  those  of  the  outer  skin.  It  absorbs  certain  sub- 
stances and  rejects  waste  matter.  On  account  of  this  close  connection  be- 
tween the  inner  and  the  outer  skin,  it  is  not  surprising  to  find  that  in  the 
lowest  animals  digestion  is  performed  by  means  of  the  external  skin.  The 
amseba,  which  is  merely  a  gelatinous  mass,  when  it  takes  its  food,  extem- 
porizes a  stomach  for  the  occasion.  It  simply  wraps  itself  around  the 
morsel,  and,  like  an  animated  apple-dumpling  with  the  apple  for  food  and 
the  crust  for  animal,  goes  on  with  the  process  until  the  operation  is  com. 
pleted,  when  it  unrolls  itself  again  and  lets  the  indigestible  residue  escape. 


146,  147.] 


THE     SALIVA. 


159 


FIG.  46. 


The  Parotid— one  of  the  salivary  glands. 


I.  Mastication  and  Insalivation. — 1.  The  Saliva.— 
The  food  while  being  cut  and  ground  by  the  teeth 
is  mixed  with  the  saliva.  This  is  a  thin,  colorless, 
frothy,  slightly  alkaline  liquid,  secreted*  by  the  mu- 
cous membrane  lining 
the  mouth,  and  by 
three  pairs  of  salivary 
glands  (parotid,  sub- 
maxillary,  and  sublin- 
gual)  opening  into  the 
mouth  through  ducts, 
or  tubes.  The  amount 
varies,  but  on  the  av- 
erage is  about  three 
pounds  per  day,  and 
in  health  is  always 

sufficient  to  keep  the  mouth  moist. f  It  softens  and 
dissolves  the  food,  and  thus  enables  us  to  get  the 
flavor  or  taste  of  what  we  eat.  It  contains  a  pe- 
culiar organic  principle  called  ptyalin,  I  which,  acting 

The  common  hydra  of  our  "brooks  can  live  when  turned  inside  out,  like  a 
glove ;  either  side  serving  for  skin  or  stomach,  as  necessity  requires. 

*  By  secretion  is  meant  merely  a  separation  or  picking  out  from  the 
blood. 

t  The  presence  and  often  the  thought  of  food  will  "make  one's  mouth 
water."  Fear  checks  the  flow  ©f  saliva,  and  hence  the  East  Indians  some- 
times attempt  to  detect  theft  by  making  those  who  are  suspected  chew 
rice.  The  person  from  whom  it  comes  out  driest  is  adjudged  the  thief. 

t  One  part  of  ptyalin  will  convert  eight  thousand  parts  of  starch  into 
sugar.— MIALHE. 

The  saliva  has  no  chemical  action  on  the  fats  or  the  albuminous  bodies. 
Its  frothiness  enables  it  to  carry  oxygen  into  the  stomach,  and  this  is 
thought  to  be  of  service.  The  action  of  the  ptyalin  commences  with  great 
promptness,  and  sugar  has  been  detected,  it  is  said,  within  half  a  minute 
after  the  starch  was  placed  in  the  mouth.  The  process,  however,  is  not 
finished  there,  but  continues  after  reaching  the  stomach.— VALENTIN.  The 


160  DIGESTION     AND     FOOD.  [147,149. 

upon  the   starch  of  the  food,  changes  it  into  glucose 
or  grape-sugar. 

2.  The  Process  of  Swallowing— -The  food  thus 
finely  pulverized,  softened,  and  so  lubricated  by  the 
viscid  saliva  as  to  prevent  friction  as  it  passes  over 
the  delicate  membranes,  is  conveyed  by  the  tongue 
and  cheek  to  the  back  of  the  mouth.  The  soft 
palate  lifts  to  close  the  nasal  opening ;  the  epiglottis 
shuts  down,  and  along  this  bridge  the  food  is  borne, 
without  danger  of  falling  into  the  windpipe  or  es- 
caping into  the  nose.  The  muscular  bands  of  the 
throat  now  seize  it  and  take  it  beyond  our  control. 
The  fibers  of  the  oesophagus  contract  above,  while 
they  are  lax  below,  and  convey  the  food  by  a  worm- 
like  motion  into  the  stomach.* 

II.  Gastric  Digestion. — 1.  The  Stomach  is  an  ir- 
regular expansion  of  the  digestive  tube.  Its  shape 
has  been  compared  to  that  of  a  bagpipe.  It  holds 
about  three  pints,  though  it  is  susceptible  of  some 
distension.  It  is  composed  of  an  inner,  mucous 
membrane,  which  secretes  the  digestive  fluids ;  an 
outer,  smooth,  well-lubricated'  serous  one,  which  pre- 
vents friction,  and  between  them  a  stout,  muscular 
coat.  The  last  consists  of  two  principal  layers  of 
longitudinal  and  circular  fibers.  When  these  con- 
tract, they  produce  a  peculiar  churning  motion, 
called  the  peristaltic  (peri,  round  ;  stalletn,  to  ar- 

saliva  thus  prepares  a  small  portion  of  food  for  absorption  at  once,  and  so 
insures  at  the  very  beginning  of  the  operation  of  digestion  a  supply  of 
force-producing  material  for  the  immediate  use  of  the  system. 

*  We  can  observe  the  peculiar  motion  of  the  oesophagus  by  watching  a 
horse's  neck  when  he  is  drinking. 


148.] 


DIAGRAM 


161 


.  47. 


Diagram  of  the  Digestion  of  the  Food.    Notice  how  the  food  is  submitted  to  the  action 
of  alkaline,  acid,  and  then  alkaline  fluids.    (See  note,  p.  165.) 


162  DIGESTION     AND     FOOD.  [149,150. 

range)  movement,  which  thoroughly  mixes  the  con- 
tents of  the  stomach.  At  the  farther  end,  the  mus- 
cular fibers  contract  and  form  a  gate-way,  the  pylorus 
(a  gate),  as  it  is  called,  which  carefully  guards  the 
exit,  and  allows  no  food  to  pass  from  the  stomach 
until  properly  prepared.* 

-  2.  The  Gastric  Juice. — The  lining  of  the  stomach 
is  soft,  velvety,  and  of  a  pinkish  hue  ;  but,  as  soon 
as  food  is  admitted,  the  blood-vessels  fill,  the  surface 
becomes  of  a  bright  red,  and  soon  there  exudes  from 
the  gastric  glands  a  thin,  colorless  fluid— the  gastric 
juice.  (See  p.  319.)  This  is  secreted  to  the  amount 
of  twelve  pounds  per  day.f  Its  acidity  is  probably 
due  to  muriatic  or  lactic  acid — the  acid  of  sour  milk. 
It  contains  a  peculiar  organic  principle  called  pepsin  J 
(peptein,  to  digest),  which  acts  as  a  ferment  to  pro- 
duce changes  in  the  food,  without  being  itself  modi- 
fied. 

The  flow  of  gastric  juice  is  influenced  by  various 
circumstances.  Cold  water  checks  it  for  a  time,  and 
ice  for  a  longer  period.  Anger,  fatigue,  and  anxiety 
delay  and  even  suspend  the  secretion.  The  gastric 


*  With,  a  wise  discretion,  however,  it  opens  for  buttons,  coins,  etc., 
swallowed  by  accident ;  and  when  we  overload  the  stomach,  it  seems  to  be- 
come weary  of  constantly  denying  egress,  and,  finally,  giving  up  in  despair, 
lets  every  thing  through. 

t  The  amount  secreted  by  a  healthy  adult  is  variously  estimated  from 
five  to  thirty-seven  pounds.  As  it  is  re-absorbed  by  the  blood,  there  is  no 
loss. 

$  Pepsin  is  prepared  and  sold  as  an  article  of  commerce.  The  best  is 
said  to  be  made  from  the  stomachs  of  young,  healthy  pigs,  which,  just  be- 
fore being  killed,  are  excited  with  savory  food  that  they  are  not  allowed 
to  eat.  One  grain  is  sufficient  to  dissolve  eight  hundred  grains  of  coagu- 
lated white  of  egg.  A  temperature  of  130°  renders  pepsin  inert. 


150,151.]       INTESTINAL  DIGESTION.          163 

juice  has  no  effect  on  the  fats  or  the  sugars  of  the 
food ;  its  influence  being  mainly  confined  to  the 
albuminous  bodies,  which  it  so  changes  that  they 
become  soluble  in  water.* 

The  food,  reduced  by  the  action  of  the  gastric 
juice  to  a  grayish,  soupy  mass,  called  chyme  (kime), 
escapes  through  that  jeal- 

Fia.  48. 

ously-guarded    door,    the 
pylorus. 

III.  Intestinal  Diges- 
tion.— The  structure  of  the 
intestines  is  like  that  of 
the  stomach.  There  is 
the  same  outer,  smooth, 

/          •          A  vertical  Section  of  the  Duodenum,  highly 

serous    membrane     (peri-   magn^ed_    ^  a  foia-nke  miim ;  2,epithe- 

f-rvnPTim^     tn    rrrpvpnt    frip      lium^  or  cuticle •'    3'  wl$ces  °f   intestinal 

)  prevent          -   glands .  5  ^^  of  duodenal  gland8 .  4?  7i 
tion,  the  lining;  of  mucous   more  Ughly  ma&nifled  sections  of  the  ceils  of 

"  •t*«u**>»'*i  gland. 


membrane  to  secrete  the 
digestive  fluids,  and  the  muscular  coating  to  push 
the  food  forward.  The  intestines  are  divided  into 
the  small,  and  the  large.  The  first  part  of  the  for- 
mer opens  out  of  the  stomach,  and  is  called  the 
du-o-de'-num,  as  its  length  is  equal  to  the  breadth  of 
twelve  fingers.  Here  the  chyme  is  acted  upon  by 
the  bile,  and  the  pancreatic  juice. 

*  The  question  is  often  asked  why  the  stomach  itself  is  not  digested  by 
the  gastric  juice,  since  it  belongs  to  the  albuminous  substances.  Some  have 
assigned  as  the  probable  reason  that  life  protects  that  organ,  and  assert 
that  living  tissues  can  not  be  digested ;  but  the  fallacy  of  this  has  been 
clearly  shown  by  experiments  that  have  been  made  with  living  tissues  in 
the  course  of  scientific  research.  The  latest  opinion  is  that  the  blood  which 
circulates  so  freely  through  the  vessels  of  the  lining  of  the  stomach,  being 
alkaline,  protects  the  tissue  against  the  acidity  of  the  gastric  juice. 


164 


DIGESTION     AND     FOOD. 


1.  The  Bile  is  secreted  by  the  liver.  This  gland 
weighs  about  four  pounds,  and  is  the  largest  in  the 
body.  It  is  located  on  the  right  side,  below  the  dia- 
phragm. The  bile  is  of  a  dark,  golden  color,  and 


FIG.  49. 


The  Mucous  Membrane  of  the  Ilium,  highly  magnified.  1,  cellular  structure  of  the 
epithelium,  or  outer  layer ;  2,  a  vein  ;  3,  fibrous  layer ;  4,  mlli  covered  with  epithe- 
lium; 5,  a  villm  in  section,  showing  its  lining  of  epithelium,  with  its  blood-vessels 
and  lymphatics ;  6,  a  vittus  partially  uncovered  ;  7,  a  villus  stripped  of  its  epithelium ; 
8,  lymphatics  or  lacteals ;  9,  orifices  of  the  glands  opening  between  the  vitti;  10,  11, 
12,  glands  ;  13,  capillaries  surrounding  the  orifices  of  the 


bitter  taste.  About  three  pounds  are  secreted  per 
day.  When  not  needed  for  digestion,  it  is  stored  in 
the  gall  cyst.*  Its  action  on  the  food,  though  not 
fully  understood,  is  necessary  to  life.f 

*  A  gall-bladder  can  be  obtained  from  a  butcher,  and  the  contents  kept 
in  a  bottle  for  examination. 

t  The  bile  is  produced,  unlike  all  the  other  animal  secretions,  from 
venous  blood ;  that  is,  the  already  contaminated  blood  of  the  portal  vein. 
Its  complete  suppression  produces  symptoms  of  poisoning  analogous  to 
those  which  follow  the  stoppage  of  respiration,  and  the  patient  dies, 


L51-153.]  ABSOKPTION.  165 

2.  The   Pancreatic  Juice    is    a    secretion   of    the 
pancreas,  or  "  sweet-bread  "  —  a  gland  nearly  as  large 
as  the  hand,  lying  behind   the  stomach.      It  is  alka- 
line,  and   contains   a   ferment    called    trypsin.      This 
juice   has   the   power   of   changing   starch    to    sugar. 
Its  main  work,  however,  is  in  breaking  up  the  glob- 
ules  of   fat  into  myriads    of    minute  particles,  that 
mix  freely  with  water,  and  remain  suspended  in  it 
like  butter  in   new   milk.      The  whole  mass  now  as- 
sumes a  milky  look,  whence  it  is  termed  chyle  (kiie), 
and  passes  on  to  the  small  intestine.* 

3.  The   Small   Intestine    is    an    intricately-folded 
tube,  about   twenty  feet  long,  and  from   an  inch  to 
an   inch   and   one   half   in   diameter.      As   the    chyle 
passes    through    this    tortuous    channel,    it    receives 
along  the  entire  route  secretions  which  seem  to  com- 
bine the  action  of  all  the  previous  ones — starch,  fat, 
and  albumen  being  equally  affected. 

IV.    Absorption  is  performed  in  two  ways,  by  the 
veins,  and  the  lacteals.      (1.)   The  veins  in  tne  stom- 


usually  in  a  comatose  condition,  at  the  end  of  ten  or  twelve  days.— DALTON. 
The  alkaline  bile  neutralizes  the  acid  contents  of  the  stomach  as  they  flow 
into  the  duodenum,  and  thus  prepares  the  way  for  the  pancreatic  juice. 
It  has  also  a  slight  emulsifying  power  (note,  p.  167). 

*  It  is  curious  to  observe  that  while  the  gastric  juice  is  decidedly  acid, 
the  fluids  with  which  the  food  next  comes  into  contact  are  alkaline.  It  is 
thus  submitted  to  the  operation  alternately  of  alkaline,  acid,  and  again  of 
alkaline  secretions.  In  the  herbivora  there  is  also  a  second  acid  juice. 
The  reason  of  these  alternations  is  not  known,  but  it  can  hardly  be  doubted 
that  they  serve  to  make  the  digestion  of  the  food  more  perfect.  And 
althoxigh  the  solvent  power  of  the  gastric  juice  is  placed  in  abeyance  when 
its  acidity  is  neutralized  by  the  alkaline  fluids,  yet  it  appears  to  be  the 
case  here,  as  in  respect  to  the  saliva,  that  effects  are  produced  by  the 
mixture  of  the  various  secretions  which  are  poured  together  into  the  di- 
gestive tube,  that  would  not  result  from  either  alone.— HINTON. 


166  DIGESTION     AND     FOOD.  [153,154. 

ach*  immediately  begin  to  take  up  the  water,  salt, 
grape-sugar,  and  other  substances  that  need  no 
special  preparation.  The  starch  and  the  albuminous 
bodies  are  also  absorbed  as  they  are  properly  digested, 
and  this  process  continues  along  the  whole  length 
of  the  alimentary  canal.  In  the  small  intestine,  there 
is  a  multitude  of  tiny  projections  (villi)  from  the 
folds  of  the  mucous  membrane,  more  than  seven 
thousand  to  the  square  inch,  giving  it  a  soft,  velvety 
look.  These  little  rootlets,  reaching  out  into  the 
milky  fluid,  drink  into  their  minute  blood-vessels  the 
nutritious  part  of  every  sort  of  food.  (2.)  The  lac- 
teals  f  (p.  126),  a  set  of  vessels  starting  in  the  villi 
side  by  side  with  the  veins,  absorb  the  principal  part 
of  the  fat.  They  convey  the  chyle  through  the  lym- 
phatics and  the  thoracic  duct  (Fig.  43)  to  the  veins, 
and  so  within  the  sweep  of  the  circulation. 

The  Portal  VeinJ  carries  to  the  liver  the  food 
absorbed  by  the  veins  of  the  stomach  and  the  villi 
of  the  intestines.  On  the  way,  it  is  greatly  modified 
by  the  action  of  the  blood  itself.  In  the  cells  of  the 
liver,  it  undergoes  as  mysterious  a  process  as  that 
performed  by  the  lymphatic  glands,  and  is  then  cast 

*  The  veins  and  the  lacteals  are  separated  from  the  food  by  a  thin, 
moist  membrane,  through  the  pores  of  which  the  fluid-food  rapidly  passes,  in 
accordance  with  a  beautiful  law  ("Popular  Physics,"  p.  53)  called  the  Osmose 
of  liquids.  If  two  liquids  of  different  densities  are  separated  by  an  animal 
membrane,  they  will  mix  with  considerable  force.  There  is  a  similar  law 
regulating  the  interchange  of  gases  through  a  porous  partition,  in  obedience 
to  which  the  carbonic  acid  of  the  blood,  and  the  oxygen  of  the  lungs,  are 
exchanged  through  the  thin  membrane  of  the  air-cells. 

t  From  lac,  milk,  because  of  the  milky  look  given  to  their  contents  by 
the  chyle. 

So  named  because  it  enters  the  liver  by  a  sort  of  gate-way. 


154,155.]  THE     COMPLEXITY.  167 

into  the  circulation.*  The  food,  potent  with  force, 
is  now  buried  in  that  river  of  life  from  which  the 
body  springs  momentarily  afresh. 

'  The  Complexity  of  the  process  of  digestion,  as 
compared  with  the  simplicity  of  respiration  and  cir- 
culation, is  very  marked.  The  mechanical  operation 
of  mastication  ;  the  lubrication  of  the  food  by  mu- 
cus ;  the  provision  for  the  security  of  the  respiratory 
organs ;  the  grasping  by  .the  muscles  of  the  throat ; 
the  churning  movement  of  the  stomach ;  the  guard- 
ianship of  the  pylorus ;  the  timely  introduction  by 
safe  and  protected  channels  of  the  saliva,  the  gastric 
juice,  the  bile,  the  pancreatic  juice,  and  the  intestinal 
fluids,  each  with  its  special  adaptation  ;  the  curious? 
peristaltic  motion  of  the  intestines ;  the  twofold  ab- 
sorption by  the  veins  and  the  lacteals ;  the  final 
transformation  in  the  lymphatics,  the  portal  vein, 
and  the  liver, — all  these  present  a  complexity  of  de- 
tail, the  necessity  of  which  can  be  explained  only 
when  we  reflect  upon  the  variety  of  the  substances 
we  use  for  food,  and  the  importance  of  its  thorough 
preparation  before  it  is  allowed  to  enter  the  blood. 

The  Length  of  Time  Required  for  digesting  a 
full  meal  is  from  two  to  four  hours.  It  varies  with 
the  kind  of  food,  state  of  the  system,  perfection  of 
mastication,  etc.  In  the  celebrated  observations  made 

*  In  these  cells,  the  sugar  is  changed  into  a  kind  of  starch  called 
glycogen.  This  is  insoluble,  and  so  is  stored  up  in  the  liver,  and  even  in  the 
substance  of  the  muscles,  until  it  is  needed  by  the  body,  when  it  is  once 
more  converted  into  soluble  sugar  and  taken  up  by  the  circulation.  The 
liver  also  changes  the  waste  and  surplus  albuminous  matter  into  bile,  and 
into  urea  and  uric  acid— the  forms  in  which  nitrogenized  waste  is  excreted 
by  the  kidneys. 


168  DIGESTION     AND     FOOD.  [155. 

upon  Alexis  St.  Martin*  by  Dr.  Beaumont,  his  stom- 
ach was  found  empty  in  two  and  a  half  hours  after 
a  meal  of  roast  turkey,  potatoes,  and  bread.  Pigs' 
feet  and  boiled  rice  were  disposed  of  in  an  hour. 
Fresh,  sweet  apples  took  one.  and  a  half  hours ; 
boiled  milk,  two  hours ;  and  unboiled,  a  quarter  of 
an  hour  longer.  In  eggs,  which  occupied  the  same 
time,  the  case  was  reversed, — raw  ones  being  digested 
sooner  than  cooked.  Roast  beef  and  mutton  required 
three  and  three  and  a  quarter  hours  respectively ; 
veal,  salt  beef,  and  broiled  chicken  remained  for 
four  hours ;  and  roast  pork  enjoyed  the  bad  pre- 
eminence of  needing  five  and  a  quarter  hours. 

Value  of  the  Different  Kinds  of  Food. — Beef  and 
Mutton  possess  the  greatest  nutritive  value  of  any 
of  the  meats.  Lamb  is  less  strengthening,  but  more 
delicate.  Like  the  young  of  all  animals,  it  should 
be  thoroughly  cooked,  and  at  a  high  temperature, 
properly  to  develop  its  delicious  flavor.  Pork  has 
much  carbon.  It  sometimes  contains  a  parasite 
called  trichina,  which  may  be  transferred  to  the 
human  system,  producing  disease  and  often  death. 


*  In  1822,  Alexis  St.  Martin,  a  Canadian  in  the  employ  of  the  American 
Fur  Company,  was  accidentally  shot  in  the  left  side.  Two  years  after,  the 
wound  was  entirely  healed,  leaving,  however,  an  opening  about  two  and  a 
half  inches  in  circumference  into  the  stomach.  Through  this  the  mucous 
membrane  protruded,  forming  a  kind  of  valve  which  prevented  the  dis- 
charge of  food,  but  could  be  readily  depressed  by  the  finger,  thus  exposing 
the  interior.  For  several  years  he  was  under  the  care  of  Dr.  Beaumont,  a 
skillful  physician,  who  experimented  upon  him  by  giving  various  kinds  of 
food,  and  watching  their  digestion  through  this  opening.  By  means  of 
these  observations,  and  others  performed  on  Katherine  Kutt,  a  woman 
who  had  a  similar  aperture  in  the  stomach,  we  have  very  important  in- 
formation as  to  the  digestibility  of  different  kinds  of  food. 


156.]  DIFFERENT     KINDS     OF     FOOD.  169 

The  only  preventive  is  thorough  cooking.  Fish  is 
more  watery  than  flesh,  and  many  find  it  difficult 
of  digestion.  Like  meat,  it  loses  its  mineral  con- 
stituents and  natural  juices  when  salted,  and  is  much 
less  nourishing.  Oysters  are  highly  nutritious,  but 
are  more  easily  assimilated  when  raw  than  when 
cooked.  Milk  is  a  model  food,  as  it  contains  albumen, 
starch,  fat,  and  mineral  matter.  No  single  substance 
can  sustain  life  for  so  long  a  time.  Cheese  is  very 
nourishing — one  pound  being  equal  in  value  to  two 
of  meat,  but  it  is  not  adapted  to  a  weak  stomach. 
(See  p.  322.)  Eggs  are  most  easily  digested  when  the 
white  is  barely  coagulated  and  the  yolk  is  unchanged. 
Bread*  should  be  made  of  unbolted  flour.  The  bran 
of  wheat  furnishes  the  mineral  matter  we  need  in 
our  bones  and  teeth,  gives  the  bulk  so  essential  to 
the  proper  distension  of  the  organs,  and  by  its  rough- 
ness gently  stimulates  them  to  action.  Corn  is  rich 
in  fat.  It  contains,  however,  more  indigestible  mat- 
ter than  any  other  grain,  except  oats,  and  is  less 
nutritious  than  wheat. f  The  Potato  is  two  thirds 


*  Very  fresh,  bread,  warm  biscuit,  etc.,  are  condensed  by  mastication 
into  a  pasty  mass  that  is  not  easily  penetrated  by  the  gastric  juice,  and 
hence  they  are  not  healthful.  In  Germany  bread  is  not  allowed  to  be  sold 
at  the  baker's  till  it  is  twenty-four  hours  old  —  a  wise  provision  for  those 
who  have  not  strength  to  resist  temptation.  This  rule  of  eating  may  well 
be  adopted  by  every  one  who  cares  more  for  his  health  than  for  a  gratifica- 
tion of  his  appetite. 

I  Persons  unaccustomed  to  the  use  of  corn  find  it  liable  to  produce 
derangement  of  the  digestive  organs.  This  was  made  fearfully  apparent  in 
the  prisons  of  Andersonville  during  the  late  civil  war.  The  vegetable  food 
of  the  Federal  prisoners  had  hitherto  been  chiefly  wheat  bread  and  pota- 
toes—the corn  bread  so  extensively  used  at  the  South  being  quite  new  to 
most  of  them  as  a  constant  article  of  diet.  It  soon  became  not  only  loath- 
some, but  productive  of  serious  diseases.  On  the  other  hand,  it  was  the 


170  DIGESTION     AND     FOOD.  [156,157. 

water, — -the  rest  being  mainly  starch.  Ripe  Fruits, 
and  those  vegetables  usually  eaten  raw,  dilute  the 
more  concentrated  food,  and  also  supply  the  blood 
with  acids,  which  are  cooling  in  summer,  and  useful, 
perhaps,  in  assimilation. 

The  Stimulants.  —  Coffee  is  about  half  nitrogen, 
and  the  rest  fatty,  saccharine,  and  mineral  sub- 
stances. It  is,  therefore,  of  much  nutritive  value, 
especially  when  taken  with  milk  and  sugar.  Its 
peculiar  stimulating  property  is  due  to  a  principle 
called  caffeine.  Its  aroma  is  developed  by  browning, 
but  destroyed  by  burning.  No  other  substance  so 
soon  relieves  the  sense  of  fatigue.*  Taken  in  moder- 
ation, it  clears  the  intellect,  tranquilizes  the  nerves, 
and  usually  leaves  no  unpleasant  reaction.  It  serves 
also  as  a  kind  of  negative  food,  since  it  retards  the 
process  of  waste. 

In  some  cases,  however,  it  produces  a  rush  of 
blood  to  the  head,  and  should  be  at  once  discarded. 
At  the  close  of  a  full  meal  it  hinders  digestion,  and 
at  night  produces  wakefulness.  In  youth,  when  the 
vital  powers  are  strong,  and  the  functions  of  nature 
prompt  in  rallying  from  fatigue,  it  is  not  needed, 
and  may  be  injurious  in  stimulating  a  sensitive 
organization. 

Tea   possesses    an   active   principle   called    theine. 


principal  article  in  the  rations  of  the  Confederate  soldiers,  to  whom  habit 
made  it  a  nutritious  and  wholesome  form  of  food,  as  was  shown  by  their 
endurance.— FLJNT,  Physiology  of  Mm,  Vol.  II.,  page  41. 

*  In  the  late  civil  war,  the  first  desire  of  the  soldiers  upon  halting  after 
a  wearisome  march,  was  to  make  a  cup  of  coffee.  This  was  taken  without 
milk,  and  often  without  sugar,  yet  was  always  welcome. 


157,158]  THE     STIMULANTS.  171 

When  used  moderately,  its  effects  are  similar  to 
those  of  coffee,  except  that  it  exerts  an  astringent 
action.  It  contains  tannin,  which,  if  the  tea  is 
strong,  coagulates  the  albumen  of  the  food — tans  it 
— and  thus  delays  digestion.  In  excess,  tea  causes 
nervous  tremor,  disturbed  sleep,  palpitation  of  the 
heart,  and  indigestion.*  (See  p.  322.) 

Chocolate  contains  much  fat,  and  also  nitrogenous 
matter  resembling  albumen.  Its  active  principle, 
theobromine,\  has  some  of  the  properties  of  caffeine 
and  theine. 

The  Cooking  of  Food  breaks  the  little  cells,  and 
softens  the  fibers  of  which  it  is  composed.  In  broil- 
ing or  roasting  meat,  it  should  be  exposed  to  a  strong 
heat  at  once,  in  order  to  coagulate  the  albumen  upon 
the  outside,  and  thus  prevent  the  escape  of  the  nu- 
tritious juices.  The  cooking  may  then  be  finished  at 
a  lower  temperature.  The  same  principle  applies  to 
boiling  meat.  In  making  soups,  on  the  contrary,  the 
heat  should  be  applied  slowly,  and  should  reach  the 
boiling  point  for  only  a  few  moments  at  the  close. 
This  prevents  the  coagulation  of  the  albumen.  Fry- 
ing is  an  unhealthful  mode  of  cooking  food,  as 
thereby  the  fat  becomes  partially  disorganized. 


*  Tea  and  coffee  should  be  made  with  boiling  water,  but  should  not  be 
boiled  afterward.  During  the  "  steeping "  process,  so  customary  in  this 
country,  the  volatile  aroma  is  lost  and  a  bitter  principle  extracted.  In 
both  England  and  China  it  is  usual  to  infuse  tea  directly  in  the  urn  from 
which  it  is  to  be  drawn.  The  tannin  in  tea  is  shown  when  a  drop  falls  on 
a  knife-blade.  The  black  spot  is  a  tannate  of  iron— a  compound  of  the  acid 
in  the  tea  and  the  metal. 

t  It  is  said  that  "Linnaeus,  the  great  botanist,  was  so  fond  of  chocolate 
that  he  named  the  cocoa-tree,  "Theobroma,"  the  food  of  the  gods. 


172  DIGESTION     AND     FOOD.  [158,159. 

Rapid  Eating  produces  many  evil  results.  1.  There 
is  not  enough  saliva  mixed  with  the  food ;  2.  The 
coarse  pieces  resist  the  action  of  the  digestive  fluids ; 
3.  The  food  is  washed  down  with  drinks  that  dilute 
the  gastric  juice,  and  hinder  its  work ;  4.  We  do  not 
appreciate  the  quantity  we  eat  until  the  stomach  is 
overloaded ;  5.  Failing  to  get  the  taste  of  our  food, 
we  think  it  insipid,  and  hence  use  condiments  that 
over-stimulate  the  digestive  organs.  In  these  various 
ways  the  appetite  becomes  depraved,  the  stomach 
vexed,  the  system  overworked,  and  the  foundation 
of  dyspepsia  is  laid.*  (See  p.  324.) 
H  The  Quantity  and  Quality  of  Food  required  vary 
with  the  age  and  habits  of  each  individual.  The 
diet  of  a  child  f  should  be  largely  vegetable,  and 
more  abundant  than  that  of  an  aged  person.  A 
sedentary  occupation  necessitates  less  food  than  an 
out-door  life.  One  accustomed  to  manual  labor,  on 
entering  school,  should  practice  self-denial  until  his 
system  becomes  fitted  to  the  new  order  of  things. 
He  should  not,  however,  fall  into  the  opposite  error. 
We  read  of  great  men  who  have  lived  on  bread  and 
water,  and  the  conscientious  student  sometimes 
thinks  that,  to  be  great,  he,  too,  must  starve  him- 
self.]; On  the  contrary,  many  of  the  greatest  workers 

*  When  one  is  compelled  to  eat  in  a  hurry,  as  at  a  railway  station,  he 
would  do  well  to  confine  himself  principally  to  meat;  and  to  dilute  this 
concentrated  food  with  fruit,  crackers,  etc.,  taken  afterward  more  leisurely. 

t  In  youth,  repair  exceeds  waste ;  hence  the  body  grows  rapidly,  and 
the  form  is  plump.  In  middle  life,  repair  and  waste  equal  each  other,  and 
growth  ceases.  In  old  age,  waste  exceeds  repair;  hence  the  powers  are 
enfeebled  and  the  skin  lies  in  wrinkles  on  the  shrunken  form. 

%  As  Dr.  Holland  well  remarks,  the  dispensation  of  saw-dust  has  passed 


159,160.]    QUANTITY     AND     QUALITY     OF     FOOD.       178 

are  the  greatest  eaters.  A  powerful  engine  needs  a 
corresponding  furnace.  Only,  we  should  be  careful 
not  to  use  more  fuel  than  is  needed  to  run  the  ma- 
chine. (See  p.  325.) 

The  season  should  modify  our  diet.  In  winter,  we 
need  highly  carbonaceous  food,  plenty  of  meat,  fat, 
etc. ;  but  in  summer  we  should  temper  the  heat  in 
our  corporeal  stoves  with  fruits  and  vegetables. 

The  climate  also  has  its  necessities.  The  inhab- 
itants of  the  frigid  north  have  an  almost  insatiable 
longing  for  fat.*  Thus,  in  1812,  when  the  Allies 
entered  Paris,  the  Cossacks  drank  all  the  oil  from 
the  lamps,  and  left  the  streets  in  darkness.  In  trop- 
ical regions,  a  low,  unstimulating  diet,  of  fruits  forms 
the  chief  dependence.! 

away.  If  we  desire  a  horse  to  win  the  race,  we  must  give  him  plenty  of 
oats. 

*  Dr.  Hayes,  the  arctic  explorer,  says,  that  the  daily  ration  of  the 
Esquimaux  was  from  twelve  to  fifteen  pounds  of  meat,  one  third  being  fat. 
On  one  occasion,  he  saw  a  man  eat  ten  pounds  of  walrus  flesh  and  blubber 
at  a  single  meal.  The  low  temperature  had  a  remarkable  effect  on  the 
members  of  his  own  party,  and  some  of  them  were  in  the  habit  of  drinking 
the  contents  of  the  oil-kettle  with  evident  relish.  Other  travelers  narrate 
the  most  incredible  stories  of  the  voracity  of  the  inhabitants  of  arctic 
regions.  Saritcheff,  a  Russian  admiral,  tells  of  a  man  who  in  his  presence 
ate,  at  a  meal,  a  mess  of  twenty-eight  pounds  of  boiled  rice  and  butter, 
although  he  had  already  partaken  of  his  breakfast.  Captain  Cochrane  fur- 
ther adds,  in  narrating  this  statement,  that  he  has  himself  seen  three  of 
the  savages  consume  a  reindeer  at  a  sitting. 

t  A  natural  appetite  for  a  particular  kind  of  food  is  an  expression  not 
only  of  desire,  but  of  fitness.  Thus  the  craving  of  childhood  for  sugar  indi- 
cates a  need  of  the  system.  It  is  questionable  how  far  it  is  proper  to  force 
or  persuade  one  to  eat  that  which  he  disrelishes,  or  his  stomach  loathes. 
Life  within  is  linked  with  life  without.  Each  organ  requires  its  peculiar 
nutriment,  and  there  is  often  a  peculiar  influence  demanded  of  which  we 
can  have  no  notice  except  by  natural  instinct.  Yet,  as  we  are  creatures  of 
habit  and  impulse,  we  need  common  sense  and  good  judgment  to  correct 
the  too  often  wayward  promptings  of  an  artificial  craving. 


174  DIGESTION     AND     FOOD.  [160,161. 

When  Food  should  be  Taken. — On  taking  food, 
the  blood  sets  at  once  to  the  alimentary  canal,  and 
the  energies  are  fixed  upon  the  proper  performance 
of  this  work.  We  should  not,  therefore,  undertake 
hard  study,  labor,  or  exercise  directly  after  a  hearty 
meal.  We  should  giye  the  stomach  at  least  half  an 
hour.  He  who  toils  with  brain  or  muscle,  and  thus 
centers  the  blood  in  any  particular  organ,  before  eat- 
ing, should  allow  time  for  the  circulation  to  become 
equalized.  There  should  be  an  interval  of  four  to 
five  hours  between  our  regular  meals,  and  there 
should  be  no  lunching  between  times.  With  young 
children,  where  the  vital  processes  are  more  rapid, 
less  time  may  intervene.  As  a  general  rule,  nothing 
should  be  eaten  within  two  or  three  hours  of  re- 
tiring. (See  p.  336.) 

How  Food  should  be  Taken. — A  good  laugh  is 
the  best  of  sauces.  The  meal-time  should  be  the 
happiest  hour  of  the  day.  Care  and  grief  are  the 
bitter  foes  of  digestion.  A  cheerful  face  and  a 
light  heart  are  friends  to  long  life,  and  nowhere 
do  they  serve  us  better  than  at  the  table.  God 
designed  that  we  should  enjoy  eating,  and  that, 
having  stopped  before  satiety  was  reached,  we  should 
have  the  satisfaction  always  attendant  on  a  good 
work  well  done. 

Need  of  a  Variety. — Careful  investigations  have 
shown  that  any  one  kind  of  food,  however  nutritious 
in  itself,  fails  after  a  time  to  preserve  the  highest 
working  power  of  the  body.  Our  appetite  palls  when 
we  confine  our  diet  to  a  regular  routine.  Nature 


161,  162.]          THE     WONDERS     OF     DIGESTION.  175 

demands  variety,  and  she  has  furnished  the  means 
of  gratifying  it.* 

The  Wonders  of  Digestion. — We  can  understand 
much  of  the  process  of  digestion.  We  can  look  into 
the  stomach  and  trace  its  various  steps.  Indeed,  the 
cnemist  can  reproduce  in  his  laboratory  many  of  the 
operations ;  "a  step  further,"  as  Fontenelle  has  said, 
"and  he  would  surprise  nature  in  the  very  act." 
Just  here,  when  he  seems  so  successful,  he  is  com- 
pelled to  pause.  At  the  threshold  of  life  the  wisest 
physiologist  reverently  admires,  wonders,  and  wor- 
ships. 

How  strange  is  this  transformation  of  food  to 
flesh!  We  make  a  meal  of  meat,  vegetables,  and 
drink.  Ground  by  the  teeth,  mixed  by  the  stomach, 
dissolved  by* the  digestive  fluids,  it  is  swept  through 
the  body.  Each  organ,  as  it  passes,  snatches  its  par- 
ticular food.  Within  the  cells  of  the  tissues  f  it  is 


*  She  opens  her  hand,  and  pours  forth  to  man  the  treasures  of  every 
land  and  every  sea,  because  she  would  give  to  him  a  wide  and  vigorous 
life,  participant  of  all  variety.  Por  him  the  corn-fields  wave  their  golden 
grain — wheat,  rye,  oats,  maize,  or  rice,  each  different,  but  alike  sufficing. 
Freely  for  him  the  palm,  the  date,  the  banana,  the  bread-fruit  tree,  the 
pine,  spread  out  a  harvest  on  the  air;  and  pleasant  apple,  plum,  or  peach 
solicit  his  ready  hand.  Beneath  his  foot  lie  stored  the  starch  of  the  potato, 
the  gluten  of  the  turnip,  the  sugar  of  the  beet ;  while  all  the  intermediate 
space  is  rich  with  juicy  herbs. 

Nature  bids  him  eat  and  be  merry;  adding  to  his  feast  the  solid  flesh 
of  bird,  and  beast,  and  fish,  prepared  as  victims  for  the  sacrifice :  firm 
muscle  to  make  strong  the  arm  of  toil,  in  the  industrious  temperate  zone ; 
and  massive  ribs  of  fat  to  kindle  inward  fires  for  the  sad  dwellers  under 
arctic  skies.—  Health  and  Us  Conditions.—  HINTON. 

t  As  the  body  is  composed  of  individual  organs,  and  each  organ  of  sep- 
arate tissues,  so  each  tissue  is  made  up  of  minute  cells.  Each  cell  is  a  little 
world  by  itself,  too  small  to  be  seen  by  the  naked  eye,  but  open  to  the 
microscope.  It  has  its  own  form  and  constitution  as  much  as  a  special 


176  DIGESTION     AND     FOOD.  [162,103. 

transformed  into  the  soft,  sensitive  brain,  or  the 
hard,  callous  bone  ;  into  briny  tears,  or  bland  saliva, 
or  acrid  perspiration  ;  bile  for  digestion,  oil  for  the 
hair,  nails  for  the  fingers,  and  flesh  for  the  cheek. 

Within  us  is  an  Almighty  Architect,  who  super- 
intends a  thousand  builders,  which  make  in  a  way 
past  all  human  comprehension,  here  a  fiber  of  a 
muscle,  there  a  filament  of  a  nerve  ;  here  construct- 
ing a  bone,  there  uniting  a  tendon, — fashioning  each 
with  scrupulous  care  and  unerring  nicety.*  So,  with- 
out sound  of  builder  or  stroke  of  hammer,  goes  up, 
day  by  day,  the  body — the  glorious  temple  of  the 
soul. 

Diseases,  etc.  —  1.  Dyspepsia,  or  indigestion  of 
food,  is  generally  caused  by  an  over-taxing  of  the 
digestive  organs.  Too  much  food  is  used,  and  the 
entire  system  is  burdened  by  the  excess.  Meals  are 
taken  at  irregular  hours,  when  the  fluids  are  not 
ready.  A  hearty  supper  is  eaten  when  the  body, 
wearied  with  the  day's  labor,  demands  rest.  The 
appetite  craves  no  food  when  the  digestion  is  en- 
feebled, but  stimulants  and  condiments  excite  it, 
and  the  unwilling  organs  are  oppressed  by  that 
which  they  can  not  properly  manage. 

Strong  tea,  alcoholic  drinks,  and  tobacco  derange 
the  alimentary  function. 

organ  in  the  body.  It  absorbs  from  the  blood  such  food  as  suits  its  pur- 
poses. Moreover,  the  number  of  cells  in  an  organ  is  as  constant  as  the  num- 
ber of  organs.  As  the  organs  expand  with  the  growth  of  the  body,  so  the 
cells  of  each  tissue  enlarge,  but  shrink  again  with  age  and  the  decline  of 
life.  Life  begins  and  ends  in  a  cell.— See  Appletons"1  Cyclopedia,  Art.  "Absorp- 
tion." 

*  See  COOKE'S  Religion  and  Chemistry,  page  236. 


163,164.]  ALCOHOL.  177 

Too  great  variety  of  dishes,  rich  food,  tempting 
flavors, — all  lead  to  an  overloading  of  the  stomach. 
This  patient,  long-suffering  member  at  last  wears 
out.  Pain,  discomfort,  diseases  of  the  digestive  or- 
gans, and  insufficient  nutrition  are  the  penalties  of 
violated  laws.  (See  p.  328.) 

2.  The  Mumps  are  an  inflammation  of  the  parotid 
and  submaxillary  glands  (see  p.  159).  The  disease  is 
generally  epidemic,  and  is  believed  to  be  contagious ; 
the  patient  should  therefore  be  carefully  secluded 
for  the  sake  of  others  as  well  as  himself.  The 
swelling  may  be  allowed  to  take  its  course.'  Relief 
from  pain  is  often  experienced  by  applying  flannels 
wrung  out  of  hot  water.  Great  care  should  be  used 
not  to  check  the  inflammation,  and,  on  first  going 
out  after  recovery,  not  to  take  cold. 


ALCOHOLIC   DRINKS   AND    NARCOTICS. 

1.    ALCOHOL    (Continued   from    p.    147). 

Relation   of   Alcohol  to   the   Digestive   Organs. — 

Is  Alcohol  a  Food?  To  answer  this  question,  let  us 
make  a  comparison.  If  you  receive  into  your  stom- 
ach a  piece  of  bread  or  beef,  Nature  welcomes  its 
presence.  The  juices  of  the  system  at  once  take  hold 
of  it,  dissolve  it,  and  transform  it  for  the  uses  of  the 
body.  A  million  tiny  fingers  (lacteals  and  veins) 
reach  out  to  grasp  it,  work  it  over,  and  carry  it  into 
the  circulation.  The  blood  bears  it  onward  wherever 
it  is  needed  to  mend  or  to  build  "  The  house  vou  live 


178  DIGESTION     AND     FOOD.  [164, 165. 

in."  Soon,  it  is  no  longer  bread  or  beef;  it  is  flesh 
on  your  arm ;  its  chemical  energy  is  imparted  to 
you,  and  it  becomes  your  strength. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  you  take  into  your  stomach 
a  little  alcohol,  it  receives  no  such  welcome.  Nature 
treats  it  as  a  poison,  and  seeks  to  rid  herself  of  the 
intruder  as  soon  as  possible.*  The  juices  of  the  sys- 
tem will  flow  from  every  pore  to  dilute  and  weaken 
it,  and  to  prevent  its  shriveling  up  the  delicate 
membranes  with  which  it  comes  in  contact.  The 
veins  will  take  it  up  and  bear  it  rapidly  through 
the  system.  Every  organ  of  elimination,  all  the 
scavengers  of  the  body — the  lungs,  the  kidneys,  the 
perspiration-glands,  at  once  set  to  work  to  throw  off 
the  enemy.  So  surely  is  this  the  .case,  that  the 
breath  of  a  person  who  has  drunk  only  a  single 
glass  of  the  lightest  beer  will  betray  the  fact. 

The  alcohol  thus  eliminated  is  entirely  unchanged. 
Nature  apparently  makes  no  effort  to  appropriate 

*  Food  is  digested,  alcohol  is  not.  Pood  warms  the  blood,  directly  or 
indirectly;  alcohol  lowers  the  temperature.  Food  nourishes  the  body,  in 
the  sense  of  assimilating  itself  to  the  tissues ;  alcohol  does  not.  Food 
makes  blood  ;  alcohol  never  does  any  thing  more  innocent  than  mixing  with 
it.  Food  feeds  the  blood-cells;  alcohol  destroys  them.  Food  excites,  in 
health,  to  normal  action  only;  alcohol  tends  to  inflammation  and  disease. 
Food  gives  force  to  the  body ;  alcohol  excites  reaction  and  wastes  force,  in 
the  first  place,  and  in  the  second,  as  a  true  narcotic,  represses  vital  action 
and  corresponding  nutrition.— If  alcohol  does  not  act  like  food,  neither  does 
it  behave  like  water.  Water  is  the  subtle  but  innocent  vehicle  of  circula- 
tion, which  dissolves  the  solid  food,  holds  in  play  the  chemical  and  vital  re- 
actions of  the  tissues,  conveys  the  nutritive  solutions  from  cell  to  cell,  from 
tube  to  tube,  and  carries  off  and  expels  the  effete  matter.  Water  neither 
irritates  tissue,  wastes  force,  nor  suppresses  vital  action :  whereas  alcohol 
does  all  three.  Alcohol  hardens  solid  tissue,  thickens  the  blood,  narcotizes 
the  nerves,  and  in  every  conceivable  direction  antagonizes  the  operation 
and  function  of  water.— LEES. 


165,166.]  ALCOHOL.  179 

it.*  It  courses  every-where  through  the  circulation, 
and  into  the  great  organs,  with  all  its  properties 
unmodified. 

Alcohol,  then,  is  not,  like  bread  or  beef,  taken 
hold  of,  broken  up  by  the  mysterious  process  of  di- 
gestion, and  used  by  the  body.f  "It  can  not  there- 
fore be  regarded  as  an  aliment,"  or  food. — FLINT. 
"  Beer,  wine,  and  spirits,"  says  Liebig,  "  contain  no 
element  capable  of  entering  into  the  composition  of 
the  blood  or  the  muscular  fiber." J  "That  alcohol  is 
incapable  of  forming  any  part  of  the  body,"  remarks 
Cameron,  "is  admitted  by  all  physiologists.  It  can 
not  be  converted  into  brain,  nerve,  muscle,  or  blood." 


*  It  was  formerly  a  question  considerably  discussed,  whether  alcohol 
exists  in  the  brain,  or  in  the  fluid  found  in  the  ventricles,  in  intoxicated 
persons.  This  was  settled  by  Percy,  who  found  alcohol  in  the  brain  and 
liver  of  dogs  poisoned  with  alcohol,  and  of  men  who  had  died  after  excess- 
ive drinking.  In  these  experiments,  the  presence  of  alcohol  was  determined 
by  distillation,  and  the  distilled  substance  burned  with  a  blue  flame,  and 
dissolved  camphor.— FLINT'S  Physiology  of  Man. 

t  Because  of  the  difficulties  of  such  an  experiment,  we  have  not  yet 
been  able  to  account  satisfactorily  by  the  excretions  for  all  the  alcohol 
taken  into  the  stomach.  This  remains  as  yet  one  of  the  unsolved  problems 
of  physiological  chemistry.  To  collect  the  whole  of  the  insensible  perspira- 
tion, for  example,  is  well-nigh  impossible.  It  was  supposed  at  one  time 
that  a  part  of  the  alcohol  is  oxidized— i.  e.,  burned,  in  the  system.  But 
such  a  process  would  impart  heat,  and  it  is  now  proved  that  alcohol  cools, 
instead  of  warms,  the  blood.  Moreover,  the  closest  analysis  fails  to  detect 
in  the  circulation  any  trace  of  the  products  of  alcoholic  combustion,  such 
as  aldehyde  and  acetic  acid.  "The  fact,"  says  Flint,  "that  alcohol  is 
always  eliminated,  even  when  drunk  in  minute  quantity,  and  that  its 
elimination  continues  for  a  considerable  time,  gradually  diminishing,  ren- 
ders it  probable  that  all  that  is  taken  into  the  body  is  removed." 

%  The  small  amount  of  nutritive  substance,  chiefly  sugar  derived  from 
the  grain  or  fruit  used  in  the  manufacture  of  beer  or  wine,  can  not,  of 
course,  be  compared  with  that  contained  in  bread  or  beef  at  the  same  cost. 
Liebig  says,  in  his  Letters  on  Chemistry,  "  We  can  prove,  with  mathematical 
certainty,  that  as  much  flour  as  can  lie  on  the  point  of  a  table-knife  is 
more  nutritious  than  eight  quarts  of  the  best  Bavarian  beer." 


180 


DIGESTION     AND     FOOD. 


[166,  167. 


Effect  upon  the  Digestion.* — Experiments  tend  to 
prove  that  alcohol  coagulates  and  precipitates  the 
pepsin  from  the  gastric  juice,  and  so  puts  a  stop  to 
its  great  work  in  the  process  of  digestion. 

The  greed  of  alcohol  for  water  causes  it  to  imbibe 
moisture  from  the  tissues  and  juices,  and  to  inflame 
the  delicate  mucous  membrane.  It  shows  the  power 
of  Nature  to  adapt  herself  to  circumstances,  that  the 
soft,  velvety  lining  of  the  throat  and  stomach  should 
come  at  length  to  endure  the  presence  of  a  fiery 
liquid  which,  undiluted,  would  soon  shrivel  and 
destroy  it.  In  self-defense,  the  juices  pour  in  to 
weaken  the  alcohol,  and  it  is  soon  hurried  into  the 
circulation.  Before  this  can  be  done,  "it  must  ab- 
sorb about  three  times  its  bulk  of  water " ;  hence, 
very  strong  liquor  may  be  retained  in  the  stomach 
long  enough  to  interfere  seriously  with  the  digestion, 
and  to  injure  the  lining  coat.  Habitual  use  of  alco- 

| 

*  The  medical  value  of  alcohol  in  its  relations  to  digestion  is  not  dis- 
cussed in  this  book.  The  experiments  of  Dr.  Henry  Munroe,  of  Hull,  pub- 
lished in  the  London  Medical  Journal,  are  here  summarized  as  showing  that 
the  tendency  to  retard  digestion  is  common  to  all  forms  of  alcholic 
drinks. 


Finely  Minced 
Beef. 

2d  Hour. 

4th  Hour. 

6th  Hour. 

8th  Hour. 

10th  Hour. 

I. 

Gastric  juice 
and  water. 

Beef 
opaque. 

Digesting 
and 
separating. 

Beef  much 
loosened. 

Broken  up 
into  shreds. 

Dissolved 
like  soup. 

II. 

Gastric  juice 
with  alcohol. 

No  alteration 
perceptible. 

Slightly 
opaque,  but 
beef 
unchanged. 

Slight  coat- 
ing on  beef. 

No  visible 
change. 

Solid  on 
cooling. 
Pepsin  pre- 
cipitated. 

m. 

Gastric  juice 
and  pale  ale. 

No  change. 

Cloudy, 
with  fur  on 
beef. 

Beef  partly 
loosened. 

No  further 
change. 

No  diges- 
tion. Pepsin 
precipitated. 

167,  168.]  EFFECT      UPON     THE     KIDNEYS.  181 

hol  permanently  dilates  the  blood-vessels ;  thickens 
and  hardens  the  membranes ;  in  some  cases,  ulcer- 
ates the  surface ;  and,  finally,  "  so  weakens  the  as- 
similation that  the  proper  supply  of  food  can  not 
be  appropriated." — FLINT.* 

Effect  upon  the  Liver. — Alcohol  is  carried  by  the 
portal  vein  directly  to  the  liver.  This  organ,  after 
the  brain,  holds  the  largest  share.  The  influence  of 
the  poison  is  here  easily  traced.  "The  color  of  the 
bile  is  soon  changed  from  yellow  to  green,  and  even 
to  black ; "  the  connective  tissue  between  the  lobules 
becomes  inflamed ;  and,  in  the  case  of  a  confirmed 
drunkard,  hardened  and  shrunk,  the  surface  often 
assuming  a  nodulated  appearance  known  as  the 
"hob-nailed  liver."  Morbid  matter  is  sometimes  de- 
posited, causing  what  is  called  "Fatty  degeneration," 
so  that  the  liver  is  increased  to  twice  or  thrice  its 
natural  size. 

Effect  upon  the  Kidneys. — The  kidneys,  like  the 
liver,  are  liable  in  time  to  undergo,  through  the  in- 
fluence of  alcohol,  a  "Fatty  degeneration,"  in  which 
the  cells  become  filled  with  particles  of  fat ;  f  the 

*  The  case  of  St.  Martin  (p.  168)  gave  an  excellent  opportunity  to 
watch  the  action  of  alcohol  upon  the  stomach.  Dr.  Beaumont  summarized 
his  experiments  thus  :  "  The  free,  ordinary  use  of  any  intoxicating  liquor, 
when  continued  for  some  days,  invariably  produced  inflammation,  ulcerous 
patches,  and,  finally,  a  discharge  of  morbid  matter  tinged  with  blood." 
Yet  St.  Martin  never  complained  of  pain  in  his  stomach,  the  narcotic  influ- 
ence of  the  alcohol  preventing  the  signal  of  danger  that  Nature  ordinarily 


t  Disabled  by  the  fatty  deposits,  the  kidneys  are  unable  to  separate  the 
waste  matter  coming  to  them  for  elimination  from  the  system.  The  poison- 
ous material  is  poured  back  into  the  circulation,  and  often  delirium  ensues. 
— HUBBABD.  Richardson  states  that  his  experience  u  is  to  the  effect  that  seven 
out  of  every  eight  instances  of  kidney  disease  are  attributable  to  alcohol.1" 


182  DIGESTION     AND     FOOD.  [168. 

vessels  lose  their  contractility ;  and,  worst  of  all,  the 
membranes  may  be  so  modified  as  to  allow  the 
albuminous  part  of  the  blood  to  filter  through  them, 
and  so  to  rob  the  body  of  one  of  its  most  valuable 
constituents.* 

~~  Does  Alcohol  Impart  Heat?  —  During  the  first 
flush  after  drinking  wine,  for  example,  a  sense  of 
warmth  is  felt.  This  is  due  to  the  tides  of  warm 
blood  that  are  being  sent  to  the  surface  of  the  body, 
owing  to  the  vascular  enlargement  and  to  the  rapid 
pumping  of  the  heart.  There  is,  however,  no  fresh 
heat  developed.  On  the  contrary,  the  bringing  the 
blood  to  the  surface  causes  it  to  cool  faster,  reaction 
sets  in,  a  chilliness  is  experienced  as  one  becomes 
sober,  and  a  delicate  thermometer  placed  under  the 
tongue  of  the  inebriate  may  show  a  fall  of  even  two 
degrees  below  the  standard  temperature  of  the  body. 
Several  hours  are  required  to  restore  the  usual  heat. 

As  early  as  1850,  Dr.  N.  S.  Davis,  of  Chicago,  ex-President 
of  the  American  Medical  Association,  instituted  an  extensive 
series  of  experiments  to  determine  the  effect  of  the  different 
articles  of  food  and  drinks  on  the  temperature  of  the  system. 
He  conclusively  proved  that,  during  the  digestion  of  all  kinds 
of  food,  the  temperature  of  the  body  is  increased,  but  when 
alcohol  is  taken,  either  in  the  form  of  fermented  or  distilled 
beverages,  the  temperature  begins  to  fall  within  a  half-hour, 
and  continues  to  decrease  for  two  or  three  hours,  and  that  the 
reduction  of  temperature,  in  extent  as  well  as  in  duration,  is  in 
exact  proportion  to  the  amount  of  alcohol  taken. 

It  naturally  follows  that,  contrary  to  the  accepted 

*  This  deterioration  of  structure  frequently  gives  rise  to  what  is  known 
as  "Bright's  Disease." — RICHARDSON. 


1C8,  1GO.J    DOES     ALCOHOL     IMPAKT     STRENGTH?      183 

opinion,  liquor  does  not  fortify  against  cold.  The 
experience  of  travelers  at  the  North  coincides  with 
that  of  Dr.  Hayes,  the  Arctic  explorer,  who  says : 
"While  fat  is  absolutely  essential  to  the  inhabitants 
and  travelers  in  arctic  countries,  alcohol  is,  in  almost 
any  shape,  not  only  completely  useless,  but  posi- 
tively injurious.  I  have  known  strong,  able-bodied 
men  to  become  utterly  incapable  of  resisting  cold  in 
consequence  of  the  long-continued  use  of  alcoholic 
drink."  ; 

Does  Alcohol  Impart  Strength  ?  —  Experience 
shows  that  alcohol  weakens  the  power  of  undergoing 
severe  bodily  exertion.*  Men  who  are  in  training 
for  running,  rowing,  and  other  contests  where  great 
strength  is  required,  deny  themselves  all  liquors, 
even  when  they  are  ordinarily  accustomed  to  their 
use. 

Dr.  Richardson  made  some  interesting  experiments  to  show 
the  influence  of  alcohol  upon  muscular  contraction.  He  carefully 
weighted  the  hind  leg  of  a  frog,  and,  by  means  of  electricity, 
stimulating  the  muscle  to  its  utmost  power  of  contraction,  he 
found  out  how  much  the  frog  could  lift.  Then  administering 
alcohol,  he  discovered  that  the  response  of  the  muscle  to  the 
electrical  current  became  feebler  and  feebler,  as  the  narcotic 
began  to  take  effect,  until,  at  last,  the  animal  could  raise  less 
than  half  the  amount  it  lifted  by  the  natural  contraction  when 
uninfluenced  by  alcohol. 

*  Dr.  McRae,  in  speaking  of  Arctic  exploration,  at  the  meeting  of  the 
American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  held  at  Montreal  in 
1856,  said :  "  The  moment  that  a  man  had  swallowed  a  drink  of  spirits,  it 
was  certain  that  his  day's  work  was  nearly  at  an  end.  It  was  absolutely 
necessary  that  the  rule  of  total  abstinence  be  rigidly  enforced,  if  we  would 
accomplish  our  day's  task.  The  use  of  liquor  as  a  beverage  when  we  had 
work  on  hand,  in  that  terrific  cold,  was  out  of  the  question." 


184  DIGESTION     AND     FOO.D.  [169,170. 

Effect  upon  the  Waste  of  the  Body.— The  ten- 
dency of  alcohol  is  to  cause  a  formation  of  an  un- 
stable substance  resembling  fat,*  and  so  the  use  of 
liquor  for  even  a  short  time  will  increase  the 
weight.  But  a  more  marked  influence  is  to  check 
the  ordinary  waste  of  the  system,  so  that  "the 
amount  of  carbonic  acid  exhaled  from  the  lungs 
may  be  reduced  as  much  as  thirty  to  fifty  per  cent.'' 
— HINTON.  The  life -process  is  one  of  incessant 
change.  Its  rapidity  is  essential  to  vigor  and 
strength.  When  the  functions  are  in  full  play,  each 
organ  is  being  constantly  torn  down,  and  as  con- 
stantly rebuilt  with  the  materials  furnished  from 
our  food.  Any  thing  that  checks  this  oxidation  of 
the  tissues,  or  hinders  the  deposition  of  new  matter, 
disturbs  the  vital  functions.  Both  these  results  are 
the  inevitable  effects  of  alcohol ;  for,  since  the  blood 
contains  less  oxygen  and  more  carbonic  acid,  and 
the  power  of  assimilating  the  food  is  decreased,  it 
follows  that  every  process  of  waste  and  repair  must 
be  correspondingly  weakened.  The  person  using 
liquor  consequently  needs  less  bread  and  beef,  and 
so  alcohol  seems  to  him  a  food — a  radical  error,  as 
we  have  shown. 

Alcohol  Creates  a  Progressive  Appetite  for  Itself. 
— WJien  liquor  is  taken,  even  in  the  most  moderate 


*  The  molecular  deposits  equalizing  the  waste  of  the  system  do  not  go 
on  regularly  under  the  influence  of  alcohol;  the  tissues  are  not  kept  up  :o 
their  standard ;  and,  in  time,  their  composition  is  changed  by  a  deposit  of 
an  amorphous  matter  resembling  fat.  This  is  an  unstable  substance,  and 
the  functions  of  animal  life  all  retrograde—  HUBBARD,  The  Opium  Habit  and 
Alcoholism. 


170,171.]  THE     LAW     OF     HEKEDITY.  185 

quantity,  it  soon  becomes  necessary,  and  then  arises 
a  craving  demand  for  an  increased  amount  to  pro- 
duce the  original  effect.  No  food  creates  this  con- 
stantly-augmenting want.  A  cup  of  milk  drank  at 
dinner  does  not  lead  one  to  go  on,  day  by  day, 
drinking  more  and  more  milk,  until  to  get  milk 
becomes  the  one  great  longing  of  the  whole  being. 
Yet  this  is  the  almost  universal  effect  of  alcohol. 
Hunger  is  satisfied  by  any  nutritious  food :  the 
dram-drinker's  thirst  demands  alcohol.  The  com- 
mon experience  of  mankind  teaches  us  the  immi- 
nent peril  that  attends  the  formation  of  this  pro- 
gressive poison-habit.  A  single  glass  taken  as  a 
tonic  may  lead  to  the  drunkard's  grave. 

Worse  than  this,  the  alcoholic  craving  may  be 
transmitted  from  father  to  son,  and  young  persons 
often  find  themselves  cursed  with  a  terrible  disease 
known  as  alcoholism — a  keen,  morbid  appetite  for 
liquor  that  demands  gratification  at  any  cost  — 
stamped  upon  their  very  being  through  the  reckless 
indulgence  of  this  habit  on  the  part  of  some  one 
of  their  ancestors.* 

The  Law  of  Heredity  is,  in  this  connection,  well 
worth  consideration.  "The  world  is  beginning  to 
perceive,"  says  Francis  Galton,  "that  the  life  of  each 

*  The  American  Medical  Association,  at  their  meeting  in  St.  Paul, 
Minnesota  (1883),  re-stated  in  a  series  of  resolutions  their  conviction,  that 
"Alcohol  should  be  classed  with  other  powerful  drugs ;  that  when  prescribed 
medically,  it  should  be  done  with  conscientious  caution  and  a  sense  of  great 
responsibility ;  that  used  as  a  beverage  it  is  productive  of  a  large  amount 
of  physical  and  mental  disease ;  that  it  entails  diseased  and  enfeebled  constitu- 
tions upon  offspring,  and  that  it  is  the  cause  of  a  large  percentage  of  the 
crime  and  pauperism  of  our  large  cities  and  country.1" 


186  DIGESTION     AND     FOOD.  [171,172. 

individual  is,  in  some  real  sense,  a  continuation  of 
the  lives  of  his  ancestors."  "Each  of  us  is  the 
footing  up  of  a  double  column  of  figures  that  goes 
back  to  the  first  pair."  "  We  are  omnibuses,"  remarks 
Holmes,  "in  which  all  our  ancestors  ride."  We  in- 
herit from  our  parents  our  features,  our  physical 
vigor,  our  mental  faculties,  and  even  much  of  our 
moral  character.  Often,  when  one  generation  is 
skipped,  the  qualities  will  re-appear  in  the  following 
one.  The  virtues,  as  well  as  the  vices,  of  our  fore- 
fathers, have  added  to,  or  subtracted  from,  the 
strength  of  our  brain  and  muscle.  The  evil  tenden- 
cies of  our  natures,  which  it  is  the  struggle  of  our 
lives  to  resist,  constitute  a  part  of  our  heir-looms 
from  the  past.  Our  descendants,  in  turn,  will  have 
reason  to  bless  us  only  if  we  hand  down  to  them  a 
pure  healthy  physical,  mental,  and  moral  being, 

"There  is  a  marked  tendency  in  nature  to  trans- 
mit all  diseased  conditions.  Thus,  the  children  of 
consumptive  parents  are  apt  to  be  consumptives. 
But  of  all  agents,  alcohol  is  the  most  potent  in 
establishing  a  heredity  that  exhibits  itself  in  the  de- 
struction of  mind  and  body.*  Its  malign  influence 
was  observed  by  the  ancients  long  before  the  pro- 
duction of  whiskey  or  brandy,  or  other  distilled 

*  Nearly  all  the  diseases  springing  from  indulgence  in  distilled  and  fer- 
mented liquors  are  liable  to  become  hereditary,  and  to  descend  to  at  least 
three  or  four  generations,  unless  starved  out  by  uncompromising  absti- 
nence. But  the  distressing  aspect  of  the  heredity  of  alcohol  is  the  trans- 
mitted drink-crave.  This  is  no  dream  of  an  enthusiast,  but  the  result  of  a 
natural  law.  Men  and  women  upon  whom  this  dread  inheritance  has  been 
forced  are  every-where  around  us,  bravely  struggling  to  lead  a  sober  life.— 
DR.  NORMAN  KERB. 


172,173.]  PRACTICAL     QUESTIONS.  187 

liquors,  and  when  fermented  liquors  or  wines  only 
were  known.  Aristotle  says,  'Drunken  women  have 
children  like  unto  themselves,'  and  Plutarch  remarks, 
'  One  drunkard  is  the  father  of  another.'  The 
drunkard  by  inheritance  is  a  more  helpless  slave 
than  his  progenitor,  and  his  children  are  more  help- 
less still,  unless  on  the  mother's  side  there  is  an  un- 
tainted blood.  For  there  is  not  only  a  propensity 
transmitted,  but  an  actual  disease  of  the  nervous 
system." — DR.  WILLARD  PARKER.* 


PRACTICAL     QUESTIONS. 

1.  How  do  clothing  and  shelter  economize  food? 

2.  Is  it  well  to  take  a  long  walk  before  breakfast? 

3.  Why  is  warm  food  easier  to -digest  than  cold? 

4.  Why  is  salt  beef  less  nutritious  than  fresh  ?t 

5.  What  should  be  the  food  of  a  man  recovering  from  a  fever? 

6.  Is  a  cup  of  black  coffee  a  healthful  close  to  a  hearty  dinner? 

7.  Should  iced  water  be  used  at  a  meal? 

8.  Why  is  strong  tea  or  coffee  injurious? 

9.  Should  food  or  drink  be  taken  hot? 

10.  Are  fruit-cakes,  rich  pastry,  and  puddings  wholesome? 

11.  Why  are  warm  biscuit  and  bread  hard  of  digestion? 

12.  Should  any  stimulants  be  used  in  youth? 

13.  Why  should  bread  be  made  spongy? 

14.  Which  should  remain  longer  in  the  mouth,  bread  or  meat? 

15.  Why  should  cold  water  be  used  in  making  soup,  and  hot  water  in 
boiling  meat? 

16.  Name  the  injurious  effects  of  over-eating. 

17.  Why  do  not  buckwheat  cakes,  with  syrup  and  butter,  taste  as  well 
in  July  as  in  January? 


*  The  subject  of  alcohol  is  continued  in  the  chapter  on  the  Nervous  System. 

t  The  French  Academicians  found  that  flesh  soaked  in  water  so  as  to  deprive  it  of 
its  mineral  matter  and  juices,  lost  its  nutritive  value,  and  that  animals  fed  on  it  soon 
died.  Indeed,  for  all  purposes  of  nutrition,  Liebig  said  it  was  no  better  than  stones,  and 
the  utmost  torments  of  hunger  were  hardly  sufficient  to  induce  them  to  continue  the 
diet.  There  was  plenty  of  nutritive  food,  but  there  was  no  medium  for  its  solution  and 
absorption,  and  hence  it  was  useless. 


188  DIGESTION     AND     FOOD.  [173,  174. 

18.  Why  is  a  late  supper  injurious? 

19.  What  makes  a  man  "bilious"? 

20.  What  is  the  best  remedy  ?    Ans.  Diet  to  give  the  organs  rest,  and 
active  exercise  to  arouse  the  secretions  and  the  circulation. 

21.  What  is  the  practical  use  of  hunger? 

22.  How  can  jugglers  drink  when  standing  on  their  heads? 

23.  Why  do  we  relish  butter  on  bread? 

24.  What  would  you  do  if  you  had  taken  arsenic  by  mistake?     (See 
Appendix.) 

25.  Why  should  ham  and  sausage  be  thoroughly  cooked  ? 

26.  Why  do  we  wish  butter  on  fish,  eggs  with  tapioca,  oil  on  salad,  and 
milk  with  rice  ? 

27.  Explain  the  relation  of  food  to  exercise. 

28.  How  do  you  explain  the  difference  in  the  manner  of  eating  between 
carnivorous  and  herbivorous  animals? 

29.  Why  is  a  child's  face  plump  and  an  old  man's  wrinkled  ? 

30.  Show  how  life  depends  on  repair  and  waste. 

31.  What  is  the  difference  between  the  decay  of  the  teeth  and  the 
constant  decay  of  the  body? 

32.  Should  biscuit  and  cake  containing  yellow  spots  of  soda  be  eaten  ? 

33.  Tell  how  the  body  is  composed  of  organs,  how  organs  are  made 
up  of  tissues,  and  how  tissues  consist  of  cells. 

34.  Why  do  we  not  need  to  drink  three  pints  of  water  per  day? 

35.  Why,  during  a  pestilence,  are  those  who  use  liquors  as  a  beverage 
the  first,  and  often  the  only  victims? 

36.  What  two  secretions  seem  to  have  the  same  general  use? 

37.  How  may  the  digestive  organs  be  strengthened? 

38.  Is  the  old  rule,  "after  dinner  sit  awhile,"  a  good  one? 

39.  What  would  you  do  if  you  had  taken  laudanum  by  mistake  ?   Paris 
Green?    Sugar  of  lead?    Oxalic  acid?    Phosphorus  from  matches?    Ammo- 
nia?   Corrosive  sublimate?    (See  p.  265.) 

40.  What  is  the  simplest  way  to  produce  vomiting,  so  essential  in  case 
of  accidental  poisoning? 

41.  In  what  way  does  alcohol  interfere  with  the  digestion? 

42.  Is  alcohol  assimilated? 

43.  What  is  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  albuminous  substances  ? 

44.  Is  there  any  nourishment  in  beer? 

45.  Show  how  the  excessive  use  of  alcohol  may  first  increase,  and, 
afterward,  decrease,  the  size  of  the  liver. 

46.  Will  liquor  help  one  to  endure  cold  and  exposure? 

47.  What  is  a  fatty  degeneration  of  the  kidneys? 

48.  Contrast  the  action  of  alcohol  and  water  in  the  body. 

49.  Is  alcohol,  in  any  proper  sense  of  the  term,  a  food? 

50.  Does  liquor  strengthen  the  muscles  of  a  working  man? 

51.  Is  liquor  a  wholesome  "tonic"? 

52.  Is  it  a  good  plan  to  take  a  glass  of  liquor  before  dinner? 


VII. 

THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 


MARK  then  the  cloven  sphere  that  holds 
All  thoughts  in  its  mysterious  folds, 
That  feels  sensation's  faintest  thrill, 
And  flashes  forth  the  sovereign  will; 
Think  on  the  stormy  world  that  dwells 
Lock'd  in  its  dim  and  clustering  cells; 
The  lightning  gleams  of  power  it  sheds 
Along  its  hollow,  glassy  threads  1 " 


"As  a  king  sits  high  above  his  subjects  upon  his  throne,  and  from  it 
speaks  behests  that  all  obey,  so  from  the  throne  of  the  brain-cells  is  all  the 
kingdom  of  a  man  directed,  controlled,  and  influenced.  For  this  occupant, 
the  eyes  watch,  the  ears  hear,  the  tongue  tastes,  the  nostrils  smell,  the  skin 
feels.  Eor  it,  language  is  exhausted  of  its  treasures,  and  life  of  its  experi- 
ence; locomotion  is  accomplished,  and  quiet  insured.  When  it  wills,  body 
and  spirit  are  goaded  like  over-driven  horses.  When  it  allows,  rest  and 
sleep  may  come  for  recuperation.  In  short,  the  slightest  penetration  may 
not  fail  to  perceive  that  all  other  parts  obey  this  part,  and  are  but  minis- 
ters to  its  necessities."—  Odd  Hours  of  a  Physician, 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 


1.  THE  STRUCTUBE. 


2.  ORGANS  OF  THE  NER- 
VOUS SYSTEM. 


1.  The  Brain. 


1.  Description. 

2.  The  Cerebrum. 

3.  TJie  Cerebellum. 


3.  HYGIENE.. 


2.  The  Spinal  Cord...  j  1.  Its  Composition. 

I  2.  Jferftttfa  Oblongata. 

1.  Description. 

2.  Motory  and  Sensory. 

3.  Transfer  of  Pain. 

4.  rAe  Spinal  Nerves— 

31  P<m-s. 

L3.  The  Nerves J  5.  77^  Cranial  Nerves— 

12  Pairs. 

6.  Sympathetic  System. 

7.  Crossing  of  Cords. 

8.  .Rejto  Action 

9.  Kves  o/  ^^£C  ^c/'zow. 

1.  Brain  Exercise. 

2.  Connection     between    Brain-growth    and 

Body-growth. 

3.  Sleep. 

4.  Effect  of  Sleeping-draughts. 

5.  Sunlight. 


4.  WONDERS  or  THE  BRAIN. 


5.  ALCOHOLIC    DRINKS 
AND  NARCOTICS. 


f  1.  Effect  of  Alco- 
hol upon  the 
Nervous  Sys- 
tem. 


1.  Stage  of  Excitement . 

2.  Stage     of    Muscular 

Weakness. 

3.  Stage  of  Mental  Weak- 


4.  Stage  of  Unconscious- 
ness. 

2.  Effect  upon  the  Brain. 

3.  Effect  upon  the  Mental  and  the  Moral 

Powers. 

1.  Constituents  of  Tobacco. 

2.  Physiological  Effects. 

3.  Possible     Disturbances    produced     by 

Smoking. 

4.  Influence  upon  the  Nervous  System. 

5.  Is  Tobacco  a  Food  ? 

6.  Influence  of  Tobacco  upon  Youth. 


3.  Opium 


1.  Description. 

2.  Physiological  fffects. 


4.  Chloral  Hydrate. 

5.  Chloroform. 

6.  Cocaine. 


THE    NERVOUS  SYSTEM.* 

Structure.  —  The  nervous  system  .includes  the 
brain,  the  spinal  cord,  and  the  nerves.  It  is  com- 
posed of  two  kinds  of  matter — the  white,  and  the 
gray.  The  former  consists  of  minute,  milk-white, 
glistening  fibers,  sometimes  as  small  as  ^-5-^00-  of  an 
inch  in  diameter ;  the  latter  is  made  up  of  small, 
ashen-colored  cells,  forming  a  pulp-like  substance  of 
the  consistency  of  b  lane-mange,  f  This  is  often  gath- 
ered in  little  masses,  termed  ganglions  (ganglion,  a 
knot),  because,  when  a  nerve  passes  through  a  group 
of  the  cells,  they  give  it  the  appearance  of  a  knot. 
The  nerve-fibers  are  conductors,  while  the  gray  cells 
are  generators,  of  nervous  force.  J  The  ganglia,  or 

*  The  organs  of  circulation,  respiration,  and  digestion,  of  which  we 
have  already  spoken,  are  often  called  the  vegetative  functions,  because  they 
belong  also  to  the  vegetable  kingdom.  Plants  have  a  circulation  of  sap 
through  their  cells  corresponding  to  that  of  the  blood  through  the  capilla- 
ries. They  breathe  the  air  through  their  leaves,  which  act  the  part  of 
lungs,  and  they  take  in  food  which  they  change  into  their  own  structure 
by  a  process  which  answers  to  that  of  digestion.  The  plant,  however,  is  a 
mere  collection  of  parts  incapable  of  any  combined  action.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  animal  has  a  nervous  system  which  binds  all  the  organs  together. 

t  In  addition  to  the  cells,  the  gray  substance  contains  also  nerve-fibers 
continuous  with  the  white-fibers,  but  generally  much  smaller.  These  form 
half  the  bulk  of  the  gray  substance  of  the  spinal  cord,  and  a  large  part  of 
the  deeper  layer  of  the  gray  matter  in  the  brain.— LEIDY'S  Anatomy,  p.  507. 

$  What  this  force  is  we  do  not  know.  In  some  respects  it  is  like  elec- 
tricity, but,  in  others,  it  differs  materially.  Its  velocity  is  about  thirty- 
three  meters  per  second.— Popular  Physics,  p.  244,  Note. 


192 


THE     NERVOUS     SYSTEM, 


PIG.  50. 


The  Nervous  System.     A,  cerebrum ;  B,  cerebellum. 


179.]  THE     BRAIN.  193 

nervous  centers,  answer  to  the  stations  along  a  tele- 
graphic line,  where  messages  are  received  and  trans- 
mitted, and  the  fibers  correspond  to  the  wires  that 
communicate  between  different  parts. 

The  Brain  is  the  seat  of  the  mind.*  Its  average 
weight  is  about  fifty  ounces. f  It  is  egg-shaped,  and, 
soft  and  yielding,  fills  closely  the  cavity  of  the  skull. 
It  reposes  securely  on  a  ,water-bed,  being  surrounded 
by  a  double  membrane  (arachnoid),  delicate  as  a 
spider's  web,  which  forms  a  closed  sac  filled,  like  the 
spaces  in  the  brain  itself,  with  a  liquid  resembling 
water.  Within  this,  and  closely  investing  the  brain, 
is  a  fine  tissue  (pia  mater),  with  a  mesh  of  blood- 
vessels which  dips  down  into  the  hollows,  and  bathes 
them  so  copiously  that  it  uses  one  fifth  of  the  entire 
circulation  of  the  body.  Around  the  whole  is  wrapped 
a  tough  membrane  (dura  mater),  which  lines  the 
bony  box  of  the  skull,  and  separates  the  various  parts 
of  the  organ  by  strong  partitions.  The  brain  consists 
of  two  parts — the  cerebrum,  and  the  cerebellum. 

The   Cerebrum   fills  the  front  and  upper  part  of 

*  In  proportion  to  the  rest  of  the  nervous  matter  in  the  body,  it  is 
larger  in  man  than  in  any  of  the  lower  animals.  It  is  the  function  which 
the  brain  performs  that  distinguishes  man  from  all  other  animals,  and  it 
is  by  the  action  of  his  brain  that  he  becomes  a  conscious,  intelligent,  and 
responsible  being.  The  brain  is  the  seat  of  that  knowledge  which  we  ex- 
press when  we  say  I.  I  know  it,  I  feel  it,  I  saw  it,  are  expressions  of  our 
individual  consciousness,  the  seat  of  which  is  the  brain.  It  is  when  the 
brain  is  at  rest  in  sleep  that  there  is  least  consciousness.  The  brain  may 
be  put  under  the  influence  of  poisons,  such  as  alcohol  and  chloroform,  and 
then  the  body  is  without  consciousness.  From  these  and  other  facts  the 
brain  is  regarded  as  the  seat  of  consciousness.— L,ANKESTER. 

t  Cuvier's  brain  weighed  64i  ounces;  Webster's,  53£  ounces;  James 
Fisk's,  58  ounces ;  Ruloff's,  59  ounces ;  an  idiot's,  19  ounces.  See  Table  in 
FLINT'S  New&us  System. 


THE    NEKVOUS    SYSTEM. 


[179-181. 


FIG.  51. 


the  skull,  and  comprises  about  seven  eighths  of  the 
entire  weight  of  the  brain.  As  animals  rise  in  the 
scale  of  life,  this  higher  part  makes  its  appearance. 

It  is  a  mass  of  white 
fibers,  with  cells  of 
gray  matter  sprink- 
led on  the  outside, 
or  lodged  here  and 
there  in  ganglia.  It 
is  so  curiously 
wrinkled  and  folded 
as  strikingly  to  re- 
semble the  meat  of 
an  English  walnut. 
This  structure  gives 
a  large  surface  for 
the  gray  matter, — 
sometimes  as  much 
as  six  hundred  and 
seventy  square 
inches.  The  convolutions  are  not  noticeable  in  an 
infant,  but  increase  with  the  growth  of  the  mind, 
their  depth  and  intricacy  being  characteristic  of  high 
mental  power. 

The  cerebrum  is  divided  into  two  hemispheres, 
connected  beneath  by  fibers  of  white  matter.  Thus 
we  have  two  brains,*  as  well  as  two  hands  and  two 

*  This  doubleness  has  given  rise  to  some  curious  speculations.  In  the 
case  of  the  hand,  eye,  etc.,  we  know  that  the  sensation  is  made  more  sure. 
Thus  we  can  see  with  one  eye,  but  not  so  well  as  with  both.  It  is  perhaps 
the  same  with  the  brain.  We  may  sometimes  carry  on  a  train  of  thought, 
"build  an  air-castle'1  with  one  half  of  our  brain,  while  the  other  half 


Surface  of  the  Cerebrum. 


181, 182.]  THE     CEREBRUM.  105 

eyes.  This  provides  us  with  a  surplus  of  brains,  as 
it  were,  which  can  be  drawn  upon  in  an  emergency. 
A  large  part  of  one  hemisphere  has  been  destroyed 
without  particularly  injuring  the  mental  powers,*— 
just  as  a  person  has  been  blind  in  one  eye  for  a  long 
time  without  having  discovered  his  loss.  The  cere- 
brum is  the  center  of  intelligence  and  th  ought,  f 

looks  on  and  watches  the  operation;  or,  we  may  read  and  at  the  same 
time  think  of  something  else.  So  in  delirium,  a  patient  often  imagines 
himself  two  persons,  thus  showing  a  want  of  harmony  between  the  two 
halves.— DRAPER,  Human  Physiology,  p.  329. 

*  A  pointed  iron  bar,  three  and  a  half  feet  long  and  one  inch  and  a 
quarter  in  diameter,  was  driven  by  the  premature  blasting  of  a  rock  com- 
pletely through  the  side  of  the  head  of  a  man  who  was  present.  It  entered 
below  the  temple,  and  made  its  exit  at  the  top  of  the  forehead,  just  about 
the  middle  line.  The  man  was  at  first  stunned,  and  lay  in  a  delirious, 
semi-stupefied  state  for  about  three  weeks.  At  the  end  of  sixteen  months, 
however,  he  was  in  perfect  health,  with  wounds  healed  and  mental  and 
bodily  functions  unimpaired,  except  that  sight  was  lost  in  the  eye  of  the 
injured  side.— DALTON.  It  is  noticeable,  however,  that  the  man  became 
changed  in  disposition,  fickle,  impatient  of  restraint,  and  profane,  which  he 
was  not  before.  He  died  epileptic,  nearly  thirteen  years  after  the  injury. 
The  tamping-iron  and  the  skull  are  preserved  in  the  Warren  Anatomical 
Museum,  Boston. 

t  In  man,  the  cerebrum  presents  an  immense  preponderance  in  weight 
over  other  portions  of  the  brain ;  in  some  of  the  lower  animals,  the  cere- 
brum is  even  less  in  weight  than  the  cerebellum.  Another  interesting 
point  is  the  development  of  cerebral  convolutions  in  certain  animals,  by 
which  the  relative  amount  of  gray  matter  is  increased.  In  fishes,  reptiles, 
and  birds,  the  surface  of  the  hemispheres  is  smooth ;  but,  in  many  mam- 
malia, especially  in  those  remarkable  for  intelligence,  the  cerebrum  presents 
a  greater  or  less  number  of  convolutions,  as  it  does  in  the  human  subject. 
— FLINT.  The  average  weight  of  the  human  brain  in  proportion  to  the 
entire  body  is  about  1  to  30.  The  average  of  mammalia  is  1  to  186 ;  of 
birds,  1  to  212;  of  reptiles,  1  to  1,321;  and  of  fishes,  1  to  5,668.  There  are 
some  animals  in  which  the  weight  of  the  brain  bears  a  higher  proportion 
to  the  body  than  it  does  in  man ;  thus  in  the  blue-headed  tit,  the  proportion 
is  as  1  to  12 ;  in  the  goldfinch,  as  1  to  24 ;  and  in  the  field-mouse,  as  1  to 
31.  "It  does  not  hence  follow,  however,  that  the  cerebrum  is  larger  in  propor- 
tion; in  fact,  it  is  probably  not  nearly  so  large;  for  in  birds  and  rodent 
animals  the  sensory  ganglia  form  a  very  considerable  portion  of  the  entire 
brain.  M .  Baillarger  has  shown  that  the  surface  and  the  bulk  of  the  cerebral 


196  THE     NERVOUS     SYSTEM. 

Persons  in  whom  it  is  seriously  injured  or  diseased 
often  become  unable  to  converse  intelligently,  both 
from  inability  to  remember  words  and  from  loss  of 
power  to  articulate  them. 

The  Cerebellum  lies  below  the  cerebrum,  and  in 
the  back  part  of  the  head  (Fig.  50).  It  is  about  the 
size  of  a  small  fist.  Its  structure  is  similar  to  that 
of  the  brain  proper,  but  instead  of  convolutions  it 
has  parallel  "ridges,  which,  letting  the  gray  matter 
down  deeply  into  the  white  matter  within,  give  it  a 
peculiar  appearance,  called  the  arbor-vitce,  or  tree  of 
life  (Fig.  55).  This  part  of  the  brain  is  the  center 
for  the  control  of  the  voluntary  muscles,*  particu- 

hemispheres  are  so  far  from  bearing  any  constant  proportion  to  each  other 
in  different  animals  that,  notwithstanding  the  depth  of  the  convolutions  in 
the  human  cerebrum,  its  bulk  is  two  and  a  half  times  as  great  in  propor- 
tion to  its  surface  as  it  is  in  the  rabbit,  the  surface  of  whose  cerebrum  is 
smooth.  The  size  of  the  cerebrum,  considered  alone,  is  not,  however,  a  fair 
test  of  its  intellectual  power.  This  depends  upon  the  quantity  of  vesicular 
matter  which  it  contains,  as  evinced  not  only  by  superficial  area,  but  by  the 
number  and  depth  of  the  convolutions  and  by  the  thickness  of  the  cortical 
layer."— CARPENTER. 

*  The  exact  nature  of  the  functions  of  the  cerebellum  is  one  of  those 
problems  concerning  which  there  is  no  unanimity  of  opinion  amongst  phys 
iologists.  It  may  be  premised,  however,  that  the  knowledge  we  at  present 
possess  does  enable  us  to  come  to  one  very  important  conclusion  with 
respect  to  the  functions  of  the  cerebellum, — it  enables  us  to  say  that  this 
organ  has  no  independent  function  either  in  the  province  of  mind  or  in 
the  province  of  motility.  And  we  may  perhaps  safely  affirm  still  further, 
that  the  cerebellum  is  much  more  intimately  concerned  with  the  produc- 
tion of  bodily  movements  than  with  the  evolution  of  mental  phenomena. 
The  anatomical  distinctness  of  the  cerebellum  from  the  larger  brain  and 
other  parts  of  the  nervous  system  is  more  apparent  than  real.  .  .  .  That 
there  is  an  habitual  community  of  action  between  the  cerebellum  and  the 
spinal  cord  is,  I  believe,  doubted  by  none,  and  the  fact  that  an  intimate 
functional  relationship  exists  between  the  cerebrum  and  the  cerebellum  is 
shown  by  the  circumstance  that  atrophy  of  one  cerebral  hemisphere  entails 
a  corresponding  atrophy  of  the  opposite  half  of  the  cerebellum.  The  sub- 
ordinate or  supplementary  nature  of  the  cerebellar  function,  however,  in 


182,183.]  THE     SPINAL     CORD.  197 

larly  those  of  locomotion.  Persons  in  whom  it  is 
injured  or  diseased  walk  with  tottering  and  uncer- 
tain movements  as  if  intoxicated,  and  can  not  per- 
form any  orderly  work. 

)  The  Spinal  Cord  occupies  the  cavity  of  the  back- 
bone. It  is  protected  by  the  same  membranes  as  the 
brain,  but,  unlike  it,  the  white  matter  is  on  the  out- 
side, and  the  gray  matter  is  within.  Deep  fissures 
separate  it  into  halves  (Fig.  50),  which  are,  however, 
joined  by  a  bridge  of  the  same  substance.  Just  as  it 
starts  from  the  brain,  there  is  an  expansion  called 
the  medulla  oblongata  (Fig.  55). 

The  Nerves  are  glistening,  silvery  threads,  com- 
posed, like  the  spinal  cord,  of  white  matter  without 
and  gray  within.  They  ramify  to  all  parts  of  the 
body.  Often  they  are  very  near  each  other,  yet  are 
perfectly  distinct,  each  conveying  its  own  impres- 
sion.* Those  which  carry  the  orders  of  the  mind  to 

this  latter  relation  seems  equally  well  shown  by  the  fact  that  atrophy  of 
one  side  of  the  cerebellum  (when  it  occurs  as  the  primary  event)  does  not 
entail  any  appreciable  wasting  in  the  opposite  half  of  the  cerebrum.  What 
other  conclusion  can  be  drawn?  If  the  cutting  off  of  certain  cerebral 
stimuli  leads  to  a  wasting  of  the  opposite  half  of  the  cerebellum,  this  would 
seem  to  show  that  each  half  of  the  cerebellum  is  naturally  called  into  ac- 
tivity in  response  to,  or  conjointly  with,  the  opposite  cerebral  hemisphere. 
Whilst  conversely,  if  atrophy  of  one  half  of  the  cerebellum  does  not  entail 
a  relative  diminution  in  the  opposite  cerebral  hemisphere,  this  would  go  to 
show  that  the  cerebral  hemispheres  do  not  act  in  response  to  cerebellar 
stimuli,  since  their  nutrition  does  not  suffer  when  such  stimuli  are  certainly 
absent.  The  action  of  the  cerebrum  is  therefore  shown  to  be  primary,  whilst 
that  of  the  cerebellum  is  secondary  or  subordinate  in  the  performance  of 
those  functions  in  which  they  are  both  concerned.— H.  CHART/TON  BASTIAN, 
Paralysis  from  Brain  Disease. 

*  Press  two  fingers  together,  and,  closing  the  eyes,  let  some  one  pass 
the  point  of  a  pin  lightly  from  one  to  the  other;  you  will  be  able  to  tell 
which  is  touched,  yet  if  the  nerves  came  in  contact  with  each  other  any- 
where in  their  long  route  to  the  brain,  you  could  not  thus  distinguish. 


198  THE     NERVOUS     SYSTEM.  [183,  184. 

the  different  organs  are  called  the  motory  nerves ; 
while  those  which  bring  back  impressions  which 
they  receive  are  styled  sensory  nerves.  If  the  sen- 
sory nerve  leading  to  any  part  be  cut,  all  sensation 
in  that  spot  will  be  lost,  while  motion  will  remain ; 
if  the  motory  nerve  be  cut,  all  motion  will  be  de- 
stroyed, while  sensation  will  exist  as  before. 

Transfer  of  Pain.— Strictly  speaking,  pain  is  not 
in  any  organ,  but  in  the  mind,  since  only  that  can 
feel.  When  any  nerve  brings  news  to  the  brain  of 
an  injury,  the  mind  refers  the  pain  to  the  end  of 
the  nerve.  A  familiar  illustration  is  seen  in  the 
" funny  bone"  behind  the  elbow.  Here  the  nerve 
(ulnar)  gives  sensation  to  the  third  and  fourth  fin- 
gers, in  which,  if  this  bone  be  struck,  the  pain  will 
seem  to  be.  Long  after  a  limb  has  been  amputated, 
pain  will  be  felt  in  it,  as  if  it  still  formed  a  part  of 
the  body — any  injury  in  the  stump  being  referred  to 
the  point  to  which  the  nerve  formerly  led.* 

*  Only  about  five  per  cent,  of  those  who  suffer  amputation  lose  the 
feeling  of  the  part  taken  away.  There  is  something  tragical,  almost  ghastly, 
in  the  idea  of  a  spirit  limb  haunting  a  man  through  his  life,  and  betraying 
him  in  unguarded  moments  into  some  effort,  the  failure  of  which  suddenly 
reminds  him  of  his  loss.  A  gallant  fellow,  who  had  left  an  arm  at  Shiloli, 
once,  when  riding,  attempted  to  use  his  lost  hand  to  grasp  the  reins  while 
with  the  other  he  struck  his  horse.  A  terrible  fall  was  the  result  of  his 
mistake.  When  the  current  of  a  batte'ry  is  applied  to  the  nerves  of  an 
arm-stump,  the  irritation  is  carried  to  the  brain,  and  referred  to  all  the 
regions  of  the  lost  limb.  On  one  occasion  a  man's  shoulder  was  thus  elec- 
trized three  inches  above  the  point  where  the  limb  was  cut  off.  For  two 
years  he  had  ceased  to  be  conscious  of  his  limb.  As  the  electric  current 
passed  through,  the  man,  who  had  been  profoundly  ignorant  of  its  possible 
effects,  started  up,  crying,  "  Oh,  the  hand !  the  hand ! "  and  tried  to  seize 
it  with  the  living  grasp  of  the  sound  fingers.  No  resurrection  of  the 
dead  could  have  been  more  startling.— DK.  MITCHELL  on  "Phantom  Limbs"  in 
lAppincotfs  Magazine. 


184-186.]  THE     0  R  A  N  1 A  L     NERVES.  199 

The  nerves  are  divided  into  three  general  classes 
— the  spinal,  the  cranial,  and  the  sympathetic. 

The  Spinal  Nerves,  of 
which  there  are  thirty-one 
pairs,  issue  from  the  spinal 
cord  through  apertures 
provided  for  them  in  the 
backbone.  Each  nerve 

arises     by     two     rOOtS  ;      the  p,  posterior  root  of  a  spinal  nerve ; 

,  -I  T      Q-,    ganglion  :    A,   anterior  root ;    S, 

anterior   IS   the   motory,  and      ^al  mrve.    The  white  portion*  of  the 

the  posterior  the  sensory  K^^^""^^^^ 
one.  The  posterior  alone 

connects  -directly  with  the  gray  matter  of  the  cord, 
and  has  a  small  ganglion  of  gray  matter  of  its  own 
at  a  little  distance  from  its  origin.  These  roots  soon 
unite,  i.  c.,  are  bound  up  in  one  sheath,  though  they 
preserve  their  special  functions.  When  the  posterior 
root  of  a  nerve  is  cut,  the  animal  loses  the  power  of 
feeling,  and  when  the  anterior  root  is  cut,  that  of 
motion. 

The  Cranial  Nerves,  twelve  pairs  in  number, 
spring  from  the  lower  part  of  the  brain  and  the 
medulla  oblongata. 

1.  The  olfactory,  or  first  pair  of  nerves,  ramify  through  the 
nostrils,  and  are  the  nerves  of  smell. 

2.  The  optic,  or  second  pair  of  nerves,  pass  to  the  eyeballs, 
and  are  the  nerves  of  vision. 

3.  4,  6.   The   motor es  oculi   (eye-movers)   are  three    pairs   of 
nerves  used  to  move  the  eyes. 

5.  The  tri-facial,  or  fifth  pair  of  nerves,  divide  each  into 
three  branches — hence  the  name :  the  first  to  the  upper  part  of 
the  face,  eyes,  and  nose ;  the  second  to  the  upper  jaw  and 


200  THE     NERVOUS     SYSTEM.  [185-187. 

teeth ;  the  third  to  the  lower  jaw  and  the  mouth,  where  it 
forms  the  nerve  of  taste.  These  nerves  are  implicated  when  we 
have  the  toothache  or  neuralgia. 

7.   The  facial,  or  seventh  pair  of  nerves,  are  distributed  over 
the  face,  and  give  it  expression.* 

FIG.  55. 


s0", 


The  Brain  and  the  origin  of  the  twelve  pairs  of  Cranial  Nerves.  P,  E,  the  cere- 
brum; D,  the  cerebellum,  showing  the  arbor-vitce ;  Gr,  the  eye;  H,  the  medulla  ob- 
longata ;  A,  the  spinal  cord ;  C  and  B,  the  first  two  pairs  of  spinal  nerves. 

8.  The  auditory,  or  eighth  pair  of  nerves,  go  to  the  ears,  and 
are  the  nerves  of  hearing. 

9.  The  glos-so-pha-ryn'-ge-al,  or  ninth  pair  of  nerves,  are  dis- 
tributed over  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  pharynx,  tonsils,  etc. 

10.  The  pneu-mo-gas'-tric,   or  tenth  pair  of  nerves,   preside 
over  the  larynx,  lungs,  liver,  stomach,  and   one  branch  extends 

*  If  it  is  palsied,  on  one  side  there  will  be  a  blank,  while  the  other 
side  will  laugh  or  cry,  and  the  whole  face  will  look  funny  indeed.  There 
were  some  cruel  people  in  the  middle  ages  who  used  to  cut  the  nerve  and 
deform  children's  faces  in  this  way,  for  the  purpose  of  making  money  of 
them  at  shows.  When  this  nerve  was  wrongly  supposed  to  be  the  seat  of 
neuralgia,  or  tic-douloureux,  it  was  often  cut  by  surgeons.  The  patient 
suffered  many  dangers,  and  no  relief  of  pain  was  gained.— MAPOTHEK, 


186,  187.] 


THE     SYMPATHETIC     SYSTEM. 


201 


to   the  heart.     This  is   the   only  nerve  which  goes  so   far  from 
the  head. 

11.  The  accessory,  or  eleventh  pair  of  nerves,  rise  from  the 
spinal  cord,  run  up  to  the  medulla  oblongata,  and  thence  leave 
the  skull  at  the  same  opening  with  the  ninth  and  tenth  pairs. 
They  regulate  the  vocal  movements  of  the  larynx. 

12.  The  hyp-o-glos'-sal,  or  twelfth  pair  of  nerves,  give  motion 
to  the  tongue. 

FIG.  56. 


Spinal  Nerves,  Sympathetic  Cord,  and  the  Net-work  of  Sympathetic  Nerves  around 
the  Internal  Organs.  K,  aorta ;  A,  oesophagus ;  B,  diaphragm  ;  C,  stomach. 

The  Sympathetic  System  contains  the  nerves  of 
organic  life.  It  consists  of  a  double  chain  of  gan- 
glia on  either  side  of  the  backbone,  extending  into 
the  chest  and  abdomen.  From  these,  delicate  nerves, 
generally  soft  and  of  a  grayish  color,  run  to  the 
organs  on  which  life  depends  —  the  heart,  lungs, 


202  THE     NERVOUS     SYSTEM.  [187,188. 

stomach,  etc. — to  the  blood-vessels,  and  to  the  spinal 
arfd  cranial  nerves  over  the  body.  Thus  the  entire 
system  is  bound  together  with  cords  of  sympathy,  so 
that,  "if  one  member  suffers,  all  the  members  suffer 
with  it." 

Here  lies  the  secret  of  the  control  exercised  by 
the  brain  over  all  the  vital  operations.  Every  organ 
responds  to  its  changing  moods,  especially  those  of 
respiration,  circulation,  digestion,  and  secretion, — proc- 
esses intimately  linked  with  this  system,  and  con- 
trolled by  it.  (See  p.  330.) 

Crossing  of  Cords. — Each  half  of  the  body  is  pre- 
sided over,  not  by  its  own  half  of  the  brain,  but  that 
of  the  opposite  side.  The  motory  nerves,  as  they 
descend  from  the  brain,  in  the  medulla  oblongata, 
cross  each  other  to  the  opposite  side  of  the  spinal 
cord.  So  the  motor-nerves  of  the  right  side  of  the 
body  are  connected  with  the  left  side  of  the  brain, 
and  vice  versa.  Thus  a  derangement  in  one  half  of 
the  brain  may  paralyze  the  opposite  half  of  the  body. 
The  nerves  going  to  the  face  do  not  thus  cross,  and 
therefore  the  face  may  be  motionless  on  one  side, 
and  the  limbs  on  the  other.  Each  of  the  sensory 
fibers  of  the  spinal  nerves  crosses  over  to  the  oppo- 
site side  of  the  spinal  cord,  and  so  ascends  to  the 
brain;  an  injury  to  the  spinal  cord  may,  therefore, 
cause  a  loss  of  motion  in  one  leg  and  of  feeling  in 
the  other. 

Reflex  Action.— Since  the  gray  matter  generates 
the  nervous  force,  a  ganglion  is  capable  of  receiving 
an  impression,  and  of  sending  back  or  reflecting  it 


188,189.]  REFLEX     ACTION.  203 

so  as  to  excite  the  muscles  to  action.  This  is  done 
without  the  consciousness  of  the  mind.*  Thus  we 
wink  involuntarily  at  a  flash  of  light  or  a  threatened 
blow.f  We  start  at  a  sudden  sound.  We  jump  back 
from  a  precipice  before  the  mind  has  time  to  reason 
upon  the  danger.  The  spinal  cord  conducts  certain 

*  Instances  of  an  unconscious  working  of  the  mind  are  abundant. 
An  illustration,  often  quoted,  is  given,  as  follows,  by  Dr.  Abercrombie,  in 
his  Intellectual  Powers: 

"A  lawyer  had  been  excessively  perplexed  about  a  very  complicated 
question.  An  opinion  was  required  from  him,  but  the  question  was  one  of 
such  difficulty  that  he  felt  very  uncertain  how  he  should  render  it.  The 
decision  had  to  be  given  at  a  certain  time,  and  he  awoke  in  the  morning 
of  that  day  with  a  feeling  of  great  distress.  He  said  to  his  wife,  ll  had  a 
dream,  and  the  whole  thing  was  clearly  arranged  before  my  mind,  and  I 
would  give  any  thing  to  recover  the  train  of  thought.'  His  wife  said  to 
him,  'Go  and  look  on  your  table.'  She  had  seen  him  get  up  in  the  night 
and  go  to  his  table  and  sit  down  and  write.  He  did  so,  and  found  there 
the  opinion  which  he  had  been  most  earnestly  endeavoring  to  recover,  lying 
in  his  own  hand-writing.  There  was  no  doubt  about  it  whatever." 

In  this  case  the  action  of  the  brain  was  clearly  automatic,  i.  e.,  reflex. 
The  lawyer  had  worried  his  brain  by  his  anxiety,  and  thus  prevented  his 
mind  from  doing  its  best.  But  it  had  received  an  impulse  in  a  certain 
direction,  and  when  left  to  itself,  worked  out  the  result.  (See  Appendix 
for  other  illustrations.) 

t  A  very  eminent  chemist  a  few  years  ago  was  making  an  experiment 
upon  some  extremely  explosive  compound  which  he  had  discovered.  He 
had  a  small  quantity  of  this  compound  in  a  bottle,  and  was  holding  it  up 
to  the  light,  looking  at  it  intently;  and  whether  it  was  a  shake  of  the 
bottle  or  the  warmth  of  his  hand,  I  do  not  know,  but  it  exploded  in  his 
hand,  and  the  bottle  was  shivered  into  a  million  of  minute  fragments, 
which  were  driven  in  every  direction.  His  first  impression  was,  that  they 
had  penetrated  his  eyes,  but  to  his  intense  relief  he  found  presently  that 
they  had  only  struck  the  outside  of  his  eyelids.  You  may  conceive  how 
infinitesimally  short  the  interval  was  between  the  explosion  of  the  bottle 
and  the  particles  reaching  his  eyes ;  and  yet  in  that  interval  the  impression 
had  been  made  upon  his  sight,  the  mandate  of  the  reflex  action,  so  to 
speak,  had  gone  forth,  the  muscles  of  his  eyelids  had  been  called  into 
action,  and  he  had  closed  his  eyelids  before  the  particles  had  reached 
them,  and  in  this  manner  his  eyes  were  saved.  You  see  what  a  wonderful 
proof  this  is  of  the  way  in  which  the  automatic  action  of  our  nervous  ap- 
paratus enters  into  the  sustenance  of  our  lives,  and  the  protection  of  our 
most  important  organs  from  injury. — DR.  CARPENTER, 


204  THE     NERVOUS     SYSTEM.  [189,190. 

impressions  to  the  brain,  but  responds  to  others  with- 
out troubling  that  organ.*  The  medulla  oblongata 
carries  on  the  process  of  respiration.  The  great 
sympathetic  system  binds  together  all  the  organs  of 
the  body. 

Uses  of  Reflex  Action. — We  breathe  eighteen 
times  every  minute ;  we  stand  erect  without  a  con- 
sciousness of  effort ;  f  we  walk,  eat,  digest,  and  at 
the  same  time  carry  on  a  train  of  thought.  Our 
brain  is  thus  emancipated  from  the  petty  detail  of 
life.  If  we  were  obliged  to  attend  to  every  breath, 
every  pulsation  of  the  heart,  every  wink  of  the  eye, 
our  time  would  be  wasted  in  keeping  alive.  Mere 
standing  would  require  our  entire  attention.  Besides, 
an  act  which  at  first  demands  all  our  thought  soon 
requires  less,  and  at  last  becomes  mechanical,];  as 

*  There  is  a  story  told  of  a  man,  who,  having  injured  his  spinal  cord, 
had  lost  feeling  and  motion  in  his  lower  extremities.  Dr.  John  Hunter 
experimented  upon  him.  Tickling  his  feet,  he  asked  him  if  he  felt  it ;  the 
man,  pointing  to  his  limbs,  which  were  kicking  vigorously  about,  answered, 
"  No,  but  you  see  my  legs  do."  Illustrations  of  this  independent  action  of 
the  spinal  cord  are  common  in  animals.  A  headless  wasp  will  ply  its  sting 
energetically.  A  fowl,  after  its  head  is  cut  off,  will  flap  its  wings  and 
jump  about  as  if  in  pain,  although,  of  course,  all  sensation  has  ceased.  "A 
water-beetle,  having  had  its  head  removed,  remained  motionless  as  long  as 
it  rested  on  a  dry  surface,  but  when  cast  into  water,  it  executed  the  usual 
swimming  motions  with  great  energy  and  rapidity,  striking  all  its  comrades 
to  one  side  by  its  violence,  and  persisting  in  these  for  more  than  half  an 
hour.1' 

t  In  this  way  we  account  for  the  perilous  feats  performed  by  the  som- 
nambulist. He  is  not  conscious,  as  his  operations  are  not  directed  by  the 
cerebrum,  but  by  the  other  nervous  centers.  Were  he  to  attempt  their 
repetition  when  awake,  the  emotion  of  fear  might  render  it  impossible. 

%  "  As  every  one  knows,"  says  Huxley,  "  it  takes  a  soldier  a  long  time 
to  learn  his  drill— for  instance,  to  put  himself  into  the  attitude  of  '  atten- 
tion' at  the  instant  the  word  of  command  is  heard.  But,  after  a  time,  the 
sound  of  the  word  gives  rise  to  the  act,  whether  the  soldier  be  thinking  of 
it  or  not,  There  is  a  story,  which  is  credible  enough,  though  it  may  not 


190,191-]  BRAIN     EXERCISE.  205 

we  say,  i.  e.,  reflex.  Thus  we  play  a  familiar  tune 
upon  an  instrument  and  carry  on  a  conversation  at 
the  same  time.  All  the  possibilities  of  an  education 
and  the  power  of  forming  habits  are  based  upon 
this  principle.  No  act  we  perform  ends  with  itself. 
It  leaves  behind  it  in  the  nervous  centers  a  ten- 
dency to  do  the  same  thing  again.  Our  physical 
being  thus  conspires  to  fix  upon  us  the  habits  of  a 
good  or  an  evil  life.  Our  very  thoughts  are  written 
in  our  muscles,  so  that  the  expression  of  our  face 
and  even  our  features  grow  into  harmony  with  the 
life  we  live. 

Brain  Exercise. — The  nervous  system  demands  its 
life  and  activity.  The  mind  grows  by  what  it  feeds 
on.  One  who  reads  mainly  light  literature,  who  lolls 
on  the  sofa  or  worries  through  the  platitudes  of  an 
idle  or  fashionable  life,  decays  mentally ;  his  system 
loses  tone,  and  physical  weakness  follows  mental 
poverty.  On  the  other  hand,  an  excessive  use  of  the 
mind  withdraws  force  from  the  body,  whose  weak- 
ness, reacting  on  the  brain,  produces  gradual  decay 
and  serious  diseases.  (See  p.  331.) 

The  brain  grows  by  the  growth  of  the  body.  The 
body  grows  through  good  food,  fresh  air,  and  work 
and  rest  in  suitable  proportion.  For  the  full  develop- 
ment and  perfect  use  of  a  strong  mind,  a  strong 
body  is  essential.  Hence,  in  seeking  to  expand  and 

be  true,  of  a  practical  joker,  who,  seeing  a  discharged  veteran  carrying 
home  his  dinner,  suddenly  called  out  '  Attention ! '  whereupon  the  man 
instantly  brought  his  hands  down  and  lost  his  mutton  and  potatoes  in  the 
gutter.  The  drill  had  been  thorough,  and  its  effects  had  become  embodied 
in  the  man's  nervous  structure." 


206  THE     NERVOUS    SYSTEM.  [Idl. 

store  the  intellect,  we  should  be  equally  thoughtful 
of  the  growth  and  health  of  the  body. 

Sleep*  is  as  essential  as  food.  During  the  day, 
the  process  of  tearing  down  goes  on ;  during  the 
night,  the  work  of  building  up  should  make  good 
the  loss.  In  youth  more  sleep  is  needed  than  in  old 
age,  when  nature  makes  few  permanent  repairs,  and 
is  content  with  temporary  expedients.  The  number 
of  hours  required  for  sleep  must  be  decided  by  each 
person.  Napoleon  took  only  five  hours,  but  most 
people  need  from  six  to  eight  hours, — brain-workers 
even  more.  In  general,  one  should  sleep  until  he 
naturally  wakes.  If  one's  rest  be  broken,  it  should 
be  made  up  as  soon  as  possible.  (See  p.  334.) 

Sunlight. — The  influence  of  the  sun's  rays  upon 
the  nervous  system  is  very  marked,  f  It  is  said  also 


*  Sleep  procured  by  medicine  is  rarely  as  beneficial  as  that  secured 
naturally.  The  disturbance  to  the  nervous  system  is  often  sufficient  to 
counterbalance  all  the  good  results.  The  habit  of  seeking  sleep  in  this 
way,  without  the  advice  of  a  physician,  is  to  be  most  earnestly  deprecated. 
The  dose  must  be  constantly  increased  to  produce  the  effect,  and  thus  great 
injury  may  be  caused.  Often,  too,  where  laudanum  or  morphine  is  used, 
the  person  unconsciously  comes  into  a  terrible  and  fatal  bondage.  (See  p. 
342.)  Especially  should  infants  never  be  dosed  with  cordials,  as  is  a  com- 
mon family  practice.  The  damage  done  to  helpless  childhood  by  the  igno- 
rant and  reckless  use  of  soothing  syrups  is  frightful  to  contemplate.  All 
the  ordinary  sleeping-draughts  have  life-destroying  properties,  as  is  proved 
by  the  fatal  effects  of  an  overdose.  At  the  best,  they  paralyze  the  nerve 
centers,  disorder  the  digestion,  and  poison  the  blood.  Their  promiscuous 
use  is  therefore  full  of  danger. 

t  The  necessity  of  light  for  young  children  is  not  half  appreciated. 
Many  of  their  diseases,  and  nearly  all  the  cadaverous  looks  of  those  brought 
up  in  great  cities,  are  ascribable  to  the  deficiency  of  light  and  air.  When 
we  see  the  glass-room  of  the  photographers  in  every  street,  in  the  topmost 
story,  we  grudge  them  their  application  to  what  is  often  a  mere  personal 
vanity.  Why  should  not  a  nursery  be  constructed  in  the  same  manner? 
If  parents  knew  the  value  of  light  to  the  skin,  especially  to  children  of  a 


i9i,i92.]          WONDERS   OF   THE   BRAIN.  207 

to  have  the  effect  of  developing  red  disks  in  the 
blood.  All  vigor  and  activity  come  from  the  sun. 
Vegetables  grown  in  subdued  light  have  a  bleached 
and  faded  look.  An  infant  kept  in  absolute  darkness 
would  grow  into  a  shapeless  idiot.  That  room  is  the 
healthiest  to  which  the  sun  has  the  freest  access. 
Epidemics  frequently  attack  the  inhabitants  of  the 
shady  side  of  a  street,  and  exempt  those  on  the 
sunny  side.  If,  on  a  slight  indisposition,  we  should 
go  out  into  the  open  air  and  bright  sunlight,  instead 
of  shutting  ourselves  up  in  a  close,  dark  chamber, 
we  might  often  avoid  a  serious  illness.  The  sun- 
bath  is  doubtless  a  most  efficient  remedy  for  many 
diseases.  Our  window  blinds  and  curtains  should 
be  thrown  back  and  open,  and  we  should  let  the 
blessed  air  and  sun  stream  in  to  invigorate  and 
cheer.  No  house  buried  in  shade,  and  no  room  with 
darkened  windows,  is  fit  for  human  habitation.  In 
damp  and  darkness,  lies  in  wait  almost  every  dis- 
ease to  which  flesh  is  heir.  The  sun  is  their  only 
successful  foe.  (See  p.  336.) 

Wonders  of  the  Brain. — After  having  seen  the 
beautiful  contrivances  and  the  exquisite  delicacy  of 
the  lower  organs,  it  is  natural  to  suppose  that  when 
we  come  to  the  brain  we  should  find  the  most  elabo- 
rate machinery.  How  surprising,  then,  it  is  to  have 


scrofulous  tendency,  we  should  haye  plenty  of  these  glass-house  nurseries, 
where  children  might  run  about  in  a  proper  temperature,  free  from  much 
of  that  clothing  which  at  present  seals  up  the  skin— that  great  supplement- 
ary lung—against  sunlight  and  oxygen.  They  would  save  many  a  weakly 
child  who  now  perishes  from  lack  of  these  necessaries  of  infant  life.— DR. 
WINTER. 


208  THE     NERVOUS     SYSTEM.  [192,198. 

revealed  to  us  only  cells  and  fibers  !  The  brain  is 
the  least  solid  and  most  unsubstantial  looking  organ 
in  the  body.  Eighty  per  cent,  of  water,  seven  of 
albumen,  some  fat,  and  a  few  minor  substances 
constitute  the  instrument  which  rules  the  world. 
Strangest  of  all,  the  brain,  which  is  the  seat  of  sen- 
sation, is  itself  without  sensation.  Every  nerve, 
every  part  of  the  spinal  cord,  is  keenly  alive  to  the 
slightest  touch,  yet  "the  brain  may  be  cut,  burned, 
or  electrified  without  producing  pain." 


ALCOHOLIC   DRINKS  AND    NARCOTICS. 

ALCOHOL    (Continued  from   p.    187). 

Effect  upon  the  Nervous  System.  —  In  the  pro- 
gressive influence  of  alcohol  upon  the  nervous  sys- 
tem, there  are,  according  to  the  researches  of  Dr. 
Richardson,  four  successive  stages. 

i.  The  Stage  of  Excitement.*—  The  first  effect  of  alcohol,  as 
we  have  already  described  on  page  144,  is  to  paralyze  the  nerves 
that  lead  to  the  extreme  and  minute  blood-vessels,  and  so  regu- 
late the  passage  of  the  blood  through  the  capillary  system.  The 

*  The  pupil  should  be  careful  to  note  here  that  alcohol  does  not  act 
upon  the  heart  directly,  and  cause  it  to  contract  with  more  force.  The  idea 
that  alcohol  gives  energy  and  activity  to  the  muscles  is  entirely  false.  It 
really,  as  we  have  seen  (p.  183),  weakens  muscular  contraction.  The  en- 
feehlement  begins  in  the  first  stage,  and  continues  in  the  other  stages  with 
increased  effect.  The  heart  beats  quickly  merely  because  the  resistance  of 
the  minute  controlling  vessels  is  taken  off,  and  it  works  without  being 
under  proper  regulation.  What  is  called  a  stimulation  or  excitement  is,  in  absolute 
fact,  a  relaxation,  a  partial  paralysis  of  one  of  the  most  important  mechanisms 
in  the  animal  body.  Alcohol  should  be  ranked  among  the  narcotics.—  RICH- 
AEDSON. 


193,194.]       STAGE     01"     MENTAL    WEAKNESS.  209 

vital  force,  thus  drawn  into  the  nervous  centers,  drives  the 
machinery  of  life  with  tremendous  energy.  The  heart  jumps 
like  the  main-spring  of  a  watch  when  the  resistance  of  the 
wheels  is  removed.  The  blood  surges  through  the  body  with 
increased  force.  Every  capillary  tube  in  the  system  is  swollen 
and  flushed,  like  the  reddened  nose  and  cheek. 

In  all  this  there  is  exhilaration,  but  no  nourishment ;  there 
is  animation,  but  no  permanent  power  conferred  on  brain  or 
muscle.  Alcohol  may  cheer  for  the  moment.  It  may  set  the 
sluggish  blood  in  motion,  start  the  flow  of  thought,  and  excite 
a  temporary  gayety.  ' '  It  may  enable  a  wearied  or  feeble  or- 
ganism to  do  brisk  work  for  a  short  time.  It  may  make  the 
brain  briefly  brilliant.  It  may  excite  muscle  to  quick  action,  but 
it  does  nothing  at  its  own  cost,  fills  up  nothing  it  has  destroyed, 
and  itself  leads  to  destruction."  Even  the  mental  activity  it  has 
excited  is  an  unsafe  state  of  mind,  for  that  just  poise  of  the 
faculties  so  essential  to  good  judgment  is  disturbed  by  the  pres- 
ence of  the  intruder.  Johnson  well  remarked,  "Wine  improves 
conversation  by  taking  the  edge  off  the  understanding." 

2.  The   Stage   of  Muscular  Weakness.— If  the  action  of  the 
alcohol  be  still  continued,  the  spinal  cord  is  next  affected  by 
this  powerful  narcotic.     The  control  of  some  of  the  muscles  is 
lost.     Those  of  the  lower  lip  usually  fail  first,  then  those  of  the 
lower  limbs,  and  the  staggering,  uncertain  steps  betray  the  re- 
sult.   The  muscles  themselves,  also,  become  feebler  as  the  power 
of  contraction  diminishes.     The  temperature,  which,  for  a  time, 
was  slightly  increased,  soon  begins  to  fall  as  the  heat  is  radiated  ; 
the   body  is    cooled,   and    the    well-known    "alcoholic    chill"   is 
felt. 

3.  The   Stage  of  Mental  Weakness. — The  cerebrum  is  now 
implicated.     The  ideal  and  emotional   faculties   are   quickened, 
while  the  will  is  weakened.     The  center  of  thought  being  over- 
powered, the  mind  is  a  chaos.    Ideas  flock  in  thick  and  fast. 
The   tongue   is  loosened.     The  judgment  loses  its  hold   on  the 
acts.      The  reason  giving  way,   the   animal   instincts  generally 
assume  the  mastery  of  the  man.    The  hidden  nature  comes  to 
the  surface.     All  the  gloss  of  education  and  social  restraint  falls 
off,  and  the  lower  nature  stands  revealed.     The  coward  shows 
himself  more  craven,  the  braggart  more  boastful,  the  bold  more 


210  THE   NERVOUS   SYSTEM.  [194, ids. 

daring,  and  the  cruel  more  brutal.  The  inebriate  is  liable  to 
become  the  perpetrator  of  any  outrage  that  the  slightest  provo- 
cation may  suggest. 

4.  The  Stage  of  Unconsciousness.  —  At  last,  prostration 
ensues,  and  the  wild,  mad  revel  of  the  drunkard  ends  with 
utter  senselessness.  In  common  speech,  the  man  is  "dead 
drunk."  Brain  and  spinal  cord  are  both  benumbed.  Fortu- 
nately, the  two  nervous  centers  which  supply  the  heart  and  the 
diaphragm  are  the  slowest  to  be  influenced.  So,  even  in  this 
final  stage,  the  breathing  and  the  circulation  still  go  on,  though 
the  other  organs  have  stopped.  Were  it  not  for  this,  every 
person  thoroughly  intoxicated  would  die.* 

Effect  upon  the  Brain. — Alcohol  seems  to  have  a 
special  affinity  for  the  brain.  This  organ  absorbs 
more  than  any  other,  and  its  delicate  structure  is 
correspondingly  affected.  The  "Vascular  enlarge- 
ment" here  reaches  its  height.  The  tiny  vessels 
become  clogged  with  blood  that  is  unfitted  to  nour- 
ish, because  loaded  with  carbonic  acid,  and  deprived 
of  the  usual  quantity  of  the  life-giving  oxygen.— 
HINTON.  The  brain  is,  in  the  language  of  the  phys- 
iologist, malfunctioned.  The  mind  but  slowly  rallies 
from  the  stupor  of  the  fourth  stage,  and  a  sense  of 
dullness  and  depression  remains  to  show  with  what 

*  Cold  has  a  wonderful  influence  in  hastening  this  stage,  so  that  a  per- 
son, previously  only  in  the  first  stage  of  excitement,  on  going  out-doors  on 
a  winter  night,  may  rapidly  sink  into  a  lethargy  (become  comatose),  fall,  and 
die.  He  is  then  commonly  said  to  have  perished  with  cold.  The  signs  of 
this  coma  are  of  great  practical  importance,  since  so  many  persons  die  in 
police  stations  and  elsewhere  who  are  really  comatose,  when  they  are  sup- 
posed to  be  only  sound  asleep.  The  pulse  is  slow,  and  almost  imperceptible. 
The  face  is  pale,  and  the  skin  cold.  "If  the  arm  be  pinched,  it  is  not 
moved  ;  if  the  eyeballs  are  touched,  the  lids  will  not  sink."  The  respiration 
becomes  slower  and  slower,  and,  if  the  person  dies,  it  is  because  liquid  col- 
lects in  the  bronchial  tubes,  and  stops  the  passage  of  the  air.  The  man 
then  actually  drowns  in  his  own  secretions. 


195,  196.J  EFFECT     UPOlsr    THE     BRAIN. 

difficulty  the  fatigued  organ  recovers  its  normal  con- 
dition. So  marked  is  the  effect  of  the  narcotic 
poison,  that  some  authorities  hold  that  "  a  once  thor- 
oughly-intoxicated brain  never  fully  becomes  what 
it  was  before." 

In  time,  the  free  use  of  liquor  hardens  and  thick- 
ens the  membrane  enveloping  the  nervous  matter ; 
the  nerve-corpuscles  undergo  a  "Fatty  degeneration"; 
the  blood-vessels  lose  their  elasticity ;  and  the  vital 
fluid,  flowing  less  freely  through  the  obstructed 
channels,  fails  to  afford  the  old-time  nourishment. 
The  consequent  deterioration  of  the  nervous  sub- 
stance —  the  organ  of  thought  —  shows  itself  in  the 
weakened  mind  *  that  we  so  often  notice  in  a  person 
accustomed  to  drink,  and  at  last  lays  the  foundation 
of  various  nervous  disorders  —  epilepsy,  paralysis, 
and  insanity. f  The  law  of  heredity  here  again  as- 
serts itself,  and  the  inebriate's  children  often  inherit 
the  disease  which  he  has  escaped. 

Chief  among  the  consequences  of  this  perverted 
and  imperfect  nutrition  of  the  brain  is  that  inter- 
mediate state  between  intoxication  and  insanity,  well 
known  as  Delirium  Tremens.  "It  is  characterized 
by  a  low,  restless  activity  of  the  cerebrum,  man- 
ifesting itself  in  muttering  delirium,  with  occasional 
paroxysms  of  greater  violence.  The  victim  almost 

*  The  habitual  use  of  fermented  liquors,  even  to  an  extent  far  short  of 
what  is  necessary  to  produce  intoxication,  injures  the  body,  and  diminishes 
the  mental  power.— SIR  HENRY  THOMPSON. 

t  Casper,  the  great  statistician  of  Berlin,  says :  "So  far  as  that  city  is 
concerned,  one  third  of  the  insane  coming  from  the  poorer  classes,  were 
made  so  by  spirit-drinking." 


212  THE     NERVOUS     SYSTEM.  [196,197. 

always  apprehends  some  direful  calamity ;  lie  imag- 
ines his  bed  to  be  covered  with  loathsome  reptiles ; 
he  sees  the  walls  of  his  apartment  crowded  with 
foul  specters ;  and  he  imagines  his  friends  and  at- 
tendants to  be  fiends  come  to  drag  him  down  to  a 
fiery  abyss  beneath." — CARPENTER.  (See  p.  287.) 

Influence  upon  the  Mental  and  Moral  Powers. — 
So  intimate  is  the  relation  between  the  body  and  the 
mind,  that  an  injury  to  one  harms  the  other.  The 
effect  of  alcoholized  blood  is  to  weaken  the  will. 
The  one  habitually  under  its  influence  often  shocks 
us  by  his  indecision  and  his  readiness  to  break  a 
promise  to  reform.  The  truth  is,  he  has  lost,  in  a 
measure,  his  power  of  self-control.  At  last,  he  be- 
comes physically  unable  to  resist  the  craving  demand 
of  his  morbid  appetite. 

Other  faculties  share  in  this  mental  wreck.  The 
intellectual  vision  becomes  less  penetrating,  the  de- 
cisions of  the  mind  less  reliable,  and  the  grasp  of 
thought  less  vigorous.  The  logic  grows  muddy.  A 
thriftless,  reckless  feeling  is  developed.  Ere  long, 
self-respect  is  lost,  and  then  ambition  ceases  to  al- 
lure, and  the  high  spirit  sinks. 

Along  with  this  mental  deterioration  comes  also 
a  failure  of  the  moral  sense.  The  fine  fiber  of  char- 
acter undergoes  a  "degeneration"  as  certain  as  that 
of  the  muscles  themselves.  Broken  promises  tell  of 
a  lowered  standard  of  veracity,  and  a  dulled  sense  of 
honor,  quite  as  much  as  of  an  impaired  will.  Under 
the  subtle  influence  of  the  ever-present  poison,  signs 
of  spiritual  weakness  multiply  fast.  Conscience  is 


197,198.]      EFFECT  UPON  THE  BRAIN.         213 

lulled  to  rest.  Reason  is  enfeebled.  Customary 
restraints  are  easily  thrown  off.  The  sensibilities  are 
blunted.  There  is  less  ability  to  appreciate  nice 
shades  of  right  and  wrong.  Great  moral  principles 
and  motives  lose  their  power  to  influence.  The 
judgment  fools  with  duty.  The  future  no  longer 
reaches  back  its  hand  to  guide  the  present.  The 
better  nature  has  lost  its  supremacy. 

The  wretched  victim  of  appetite  will  now  gratify 
his  tyrannical  passion  for  drink  at  any  expense  of 
deceit  or  crime.  He  becomes  the  blind  instrument 
of  his  insane  impulses,  and  commits  acts  from  which 
he  would  once  have  shrunk  with  horror.*  Some- 
times he  even  takes  a  malignant  pleasure  in  injuring 
those  whom  Nature  has  ordained  he  should  protect,  f 

*  Richardson  sums  up  the  various  diseases  caused  by  alcohol,  as  follows  : 
"  (a).  Diseases  of  the  brain  and  nervous  system,  indicated  by  such  names  as 
apoplexy,  epilepsy,  paralysis,  vertigo,  softening  of  the  brain,  delirium  tre- 
mens,  dipsomania  or  inordinate  craving  for  drink,  loss  of  memory,  and  that 
general  failure  of  the  mental  power,  called  dementia.  (6).  Diseases  of  the 
lungs:  one  form  of  consumption,  congestion,  and  subsequent  bronchitis. 
(c).  Diseases  of  the  heart :  irregular  beat,  feebleness  of  the  muscular  walls, 
dilatation,  disease  of  the  valves,  (d).  Diseases  of  the  blood :  scurvy,  excess 
of  water  or  dropsy,  separation  of  fibrin,  (e).  Diseases  of  the  stomach :  fee- 
bleness of  the  stomach,  indigestion,  flatulency,  irritation,  and  sometimes  in- 
flammation. (/).  Diseases  of  the  bowels :  relaxation  or  purging,  irritation. 
(g).  Diseases  of  the  liver:  congestion,  hardening  and  shrinking,  cirrhosis. 
(h).  Diseases  of  the  kidneys :  change  of  structure  into  fatty  or  waxy-like 
condition  and  other  results  leading  to  dropsy,  or  sometimes  to  fatal  sleep. 
(i).  Diseases  of  the  muscles :  fatty  change  in  the  muscles,  by  which  they 
lose  their  power  for  proper  active  contraction,  (j).  Diseases  of  the  mem- 
branes of  the  body:  thickening  and  loss  of  elasticity,  by  which  the  parts 
wrapped  up  in  the  membrane  are  impaired  for  use,  and  premature  decay 
is  induced." 

t  It  has  been  argued  that  a  man  should  not  be  punished  for  any  crime 
he  may  commit  during  intoxication,  but  rather  for  knowingly  giving  up  the 
reins  of  reason  and  conscience,  and  thus  subjecting  himself  to  the  rule  of 
his  evil  passions.  Voluntarily  to  stimulate  the  mind  and  put  it  into  a  con- 


214  THE     NERVOUS     SYSTEM.  [198,199. 


2.    TOBACCO. 

The  Constituents  of  Tobacco  Smoke  are  numer- 
ous, but  the  prominent  ones  are  carbonic  acid,  car- 
bonic oxide,  and  ammonia  gases ;  carbon,  or  soot ; 
and  nicotine.  The  proportion  of  these  substances 
varies  with  different  kinds  of  tobacco,  the  pipe  used, 
and  the  rapidity  of  the  combustion.  Carbonic  acid 
tends  to  produce  sleepiness  and  headache.  Carbonic 
oxide,  in  addition,  causes  a  tremulous  movement  of 
the  muscles,  and  so  of  the  heart.  Ammonia  bites 
the  tongue  of  the  smoker,  excites  the  salivary  glands, 
and  causes  dryness  of  the  mouth  and  throat.  Nico- 
tine is  a  powerful  poison.  The  amount  contained  in 
one  or  two  strong  cigars,  if  thrown  directly  into  the 
blood,  would  cause  death.  Nicotine  itself  is  complex, 
yielding  a  volatile  substance  that  gives  the  odor  to 
the  breath  and  clothing ;  and  also  a  bitter  extract 
which  produces  the  sickening  taste  of  an  old  pipe. 
In  smoking,  some  of  the  nicotine  is  decomposed, 
forming  pyridine,  picoline,  and  other  poisonous  alka- 
loids.* 

dition  where  it  may  drive  one  to  ruin,  is  very  like  the  act  of  an  engineer 
who  should  get  up  steam  in  his  engine,  and  then,  having  opened  the  valves, 
desert  his  post,  and  let  the  monster  go  thundering  down  the  track  to  sure 
destruction.  Certain  persons  are  thrown  into  the  stage  of  mental  weakness 
by  a  single  glass  of  liquor.  How  can  they  be  excused  when  the  fact  of  their 
peculiar  liability  lends  additional  force  to  the  argument  of  abstemiousness, 
and  they  know  that  their  only  safety  lies  in  total  abstinence  f— CARPENTER'S 
Physiology. 

*  The  analysis  of  tobacco  as  given  by  different  authorities  varies  greatly. 
The  one  stated  in  the  text  suffices  for  the  purposes  of  this  chapter.  Von 
Eulsnberg  names  several  other  products  of  the  combustion.  One  hundred 
pounds  of  the  dry  leaf  may  yield  as  high  as  seven  pounds  of  nicotine,  Havana 


199,200.J  PHYSIOLOGICAL     EFFECTS.  215 

Physiological  Effects. — The  poison  of  tobacco,  set 
free  by  the  process  either  of  chewing  or  smoking, 
when  for  the  first  time  it  is  swept  through  the  sys- 
tem by  the  blood,  powerfully  affects  the  body. 
Nausea  is  felt,  and  the  stomach  seeks  to  throw  off 
the  offending  substance.  The  brain  is  inflamed,'  and 
headache  follows.  The  motor-nerves  becoming  irri- 
tated, giddiness  ensues.  Thus  Nature  earnestly  pro- 
tests against  the  formation  of  this  habit.  But,  after 
repeated  trials,  the  system  adjusts  itself  to  the  new 
conditions.  A  "tolerance"  of  the  poison  is  finally 
established,  and  smoking  causes  none  of  the  former 
symptoms.  Such  powerful  substances  can  not,  how- 
ever, be  constantly  inhaled  without  producing  marked 
changes.  The  three  great  eliminating  organs — the 
lungs,  the  skin,  and  the  kidneys — throw  off  a  large 
part  of  the  products,  but  much  remains  in  the  sys- 
tem. When  the  presence  of  the  poison  is  constant, 
and  especially  when  the  smoking  or  chewing  is  ex- 
cessive, the  disturbance  that  at  first  is  merely  func- 
tional, must  necessarily,  in  many  cases  at  least,  lead 
to  a  chronic  derangement. 

Probably  in  this,  as  in  the  case  of  other  delete- 
rious articles  of  diet,  the  strong  and  healthy  will 
seem  to  escape  entirely,  while  the  weak  and  those 
predisposed  to  disease  will  be  injured  in  direct  pro- 
portion to  the  extent  of  the  indulgence.  Those 
whose  employment  leads  to  active,  out-door  work,  will 
show  no  sign  of  nicotine  poisoning,  while  the  man  of 

tobacco  contains  about  two  per  cent.,  and  Virginia  about  six  per  cent. — See 
JOHNSTOK  &  CHURCH'S  Chemistry  of  Common  Life,  and  MILLER'S  Organic  Chemistry. 


216  THE     NEKVOUS     SYSTEM.  [200,201. 

sedentary  habits  will  sooner  or  later  be  the  victim  of 
dyspepsia,  sleeplessness,  nervousness,  paralysis,  or 
other  organic  difficulties.  Even  where  the  user  of 
tobacco  himself  escapes  harm,  the  law  of  heredity 
asserts  itself,  and  the  innocent  offspring  only  too 
often  inherit  an  impaired  constitution,  and  a  ten- 
dency to  nervous  complaints. 

The  Various  Disturbances  produced  in  different  individuals 
and  constitutions  by  smoking  have  been  summed  up  by  Dr. 
Richardson  as  follows:  "(a)  In  the  blood,  it  causes  undue  fluid- 
ity, and  change  in  the  red  corpuscles ;  (5)  in  the  stomach,  it 
gives  rise  to  debility,  nausea,  and  vomiting;  (c)  in  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  mouth,  it  produces  enlargement  and  soreness 
of  the  tonsils — smoker's  sore  throat — redness,  dryness,  and  occa- 
sional peeling  of  the  membrane,  and  either  unnatural  firmness 
and  contraction,  or  sponginess  of  the  gums ;  and,  where  the 
pipe  rests  on  the  lips,  oftentimes  '  epithelial  cancer ' ;  (d)  in  the 
heart,  it  causes  debility  of  the  organ,  and  irregular  action  ;  (&) 
in  the  bronchial  surface  of  the  lungs,  when  that  is  already  irri- 
table, it  sustains  irritation,  and  increases  the  cough ;  (/)  in  the 
organs  of  sense,  it  produces  dilation  of  the  pupils  of  the  eye, 
confusion  of  vision,  bright  lines,  luminous  or  cobweb  specks, 
and  long  retention  of  images  on  the  retina,  with  analogous 
symptoms  affecting  the  ear,  viz.,  inability  to  define  sounds 
clearly,  and  the  occurrence  of  a  sharp,  ringing  noise  like  a 
whistle ;  (g)  in  the  brain,  it  impairs  the  activity  of  the  organ, 
oppressing  it  if  it  be  nourished,  but  soothing  it  if  it  be  ex- 
hausted ;  (h)  it  leads  to  paralysis  in  the  motor  and  sympathetic 
nerves,  and  to  over-secretion  from  the  glands  which  the  sympa- 
thetic nerves  control." 

Is  Tobacco  a  Food  ? — Here,  as  in  the  case  of  al- 
cohol, the  reply  is  a  negative  one.  Tobacco  manifests 
no  characteristic  of  a  food.  It  can  not  impart  to  the 
blood  an  atom  of  nutritive  matter  for  building  up 


201,202.]        THE     INFLUENCE     UPON     YOUTH.  217 

the  body.  It  does  not  add  to,  but  rather  subtracts 
from,  the  total  vital  force.  It  confers  no  potential 
power  upon  muscle  or  brain.  It  stimulates  by  cutting 
off  the  nervous  supply  from  the  extremities  and  con- 
centrating it  upon  the  centers.  But  stimulation  is 
not  nourishment ;  it  is  only  a  rapid  spending  of  the 
capital  stock.  There  is  no  greater  error  than  to  mis- 
take the  exciting  of  an  organ  for  its  strengthening. 

The  Influence  upon  Youth. — Here,  too,  science 
utters  no  doubtful  voice.  Experience  asserts  only 
one  conviction.  Tobacco  retards  the  development  of 
mind  and  body*  The  law  of  nature  is  that  of  steady 
growth.  It  can  not  admit  of  a  daily,  even  though  it 
be  merely  a  functional,  disturbance  that  weakens  the 
digestion,  that  causes  the  heart  to  labor  excessively, 
that  prevents  the  perfect  oxidation  of  the  blood, 
that  interferes  with  the  assimilation,  and  that  de- 
ranges the  nervous  system,  f  No  one  has  a  right 

*  Cigarettes  are  especially  injurious  from  the  irritating  smoke  of  the 
paper  covering,  taken  into  the  lungs,  and  also  because  the  poison-fumes  of 
the  tobacco  are  more  directly  inhaled.  In  case  of  the  cheap  cigarettes  often 
smoked  by  boys,  the  ingredients  used  are  harmful,  while  one  revolts  at  the 
thought  of  the  filthy  materials,  refuse  cigar-stumps,  etc.,  employed  in  their 
manufacture. 

t  There  is  one  influence  of  tobacco  that  every  young  man  should  un- 
derstand. In  many  cases,  like  alcohol,  it  seems  to  blunt  the  sensibilities, 
and  to  make  its  user  careless  of  the  rights  and  feelings  of  others.  This  is 
often  noticed  in  common  life.  We  meet  every-where  "devotees  of  the 
weed,"  who,  ignoring  the  fact  that  tobacco  is  disagreeable  to  many  persons, 
think  only  of  the  gratification  of  their  selfish  appetite.  They  smoke  or 
chew  in  any  place  or  company.  They  permit  the  cigar  fumes  to  blow  into 
the  faces  of  passers-by.  They  sit  where  the  wind  carries  the  smoke  of  their 
pipes  so  that  others  must  inhale  it.  They  expectorate  upon  the  floor  of 
cars,  hotels,  and  even  private  homes.  They  take  no  pains  to  remove  the 
odor  that  lingers  about  their  person  and  clothing.  They  force  all  who 
happen  to  be  near,  their  companions,  their  fellow-travelers,  to  inhale  the 
nauseating  odor  of  tobacco.  Every  thing  must  be  sacrificed  to  the  one 


218  THE     NEEVOUS     SYSTEM.  [202. 

thus  to  check  and  disturb  continually  the  regular 
processes  of  his  physical  and  mental  progress. 
Hence,  the  young  man  (especially  if  he  be  of  a 
nervous,  sensitive  organization)  who  uses  tobacco  de- 
liberately diminishes  the  possible  energy  with  which 
he  might  commence  the  work  of  life ;  *  while  he 
comes  under  the  bondage  of  a  habit  that  may  be- 
come stronger  than  his  will,  and  under  the  influence 
of  a  narcotic  that  may  beguile  his  faculties  and 
palsy  his  strength  at  the  very  moment  when  every 
power  should  be  awake. 

Another  peril  still  lies  in  the  wake  of  this  master- 
ful poison-habit.  Tobacco  causes  thirst  and  depres- 
sion that  only  too  often  and  naturally  lead  to  the 
use  of  liquor.  (See  p.  338.) 

3.    OPIUM. 

Opium  is  the  dried  juice  of  the  poppy.  In  Eastern 
countries,  this  flower  is  cultivated  in  immense  fields 

primal  necessity  of  such  persons— a  smoke.  Now,  a  young  man  just  begin- 
ning life,  with  his  fortune  to  make,  and  his  success  to  achieve,  can  not 
afford  to  burden  himself  with  a  habit  that  is  costly,  that  will  make  his 
presence  offensive  to  many  persons,  and  that  may  perhaps  render  him  less 
sensitive  to  the  best  influences  and  perceptions  of  manhood. 

*  In  the  Polytechnic  School  at  Paris,  the  pupils  were  divided  into  two 
classes— the  smokers,  and  the  non-smokers.  The  latter  not  only  excelled  on 
the  entrance  examinations,  but  during  the  entire  course  of  study.  Dr.  De- 
caisne  examined  thirty-eight  boys  who  smoked,  and  found  twenty-seven  of 
them  diseased  from  nicotine  poisoning.  So  long  ago  as  1868,  in  consequence 
of  these  results,  the  Minister  of  Public  Instruction  forbade  the  use  of  to- 
bacco by  the  pupils. 

Dr.  Gihon,  medical  director  of  the  Naval  Academy  at  Annapolis,  in  his 
report  for  1881,  says:  "The  most  important  matter  in  the  health-history 
of  the  students  is  that  relating  to  tobacco,  and  its  interdiction  is  absolutely 
essential  to  their  future  health  and  usefulness.  In  this  view  I  have  been 
sustained  by  my  colleagues,  and  by  all  sanitarians  in  civil  and  military 
life  whose  views  I  have  been  able  to  obtain." 


203,204.]  PHYSIOLOGICAL     EFFECT.  219 

for  the  sake  of  this  product.  When  a  cut  is  made  in 
the  poppy-head,  a  tiny  tear  of  milky  juice  exudes, 
and  hardens.  These  little  drops  are  gathered  and 
prepared  for  the  market,  an  acre  yielding,  it  is  said, 
about  twenty-five  pounds.  Throughout  the  East, 
opium  is  generally  smoked ;  but  in  Western  countries 
laudanum  and  paregoric  (tinctures  of  opium),  and 
morphine — a  powerful  alkaloid  contained  in  opium, 
are  generally  used.  The  drug  itself  is  also  eaten. 

Physiological  Effect. — Opium,  in  its  various  forms, 
acts  directly  upon  the  nerves,  a  small  dose  quieting 
pain,  and  a  larger  one  soothing  to  sleep.  It  arouses 
the  brain,  and  fires  the  imagination  to  a  wonderful 
pitch.*  The  reaction  from  this  unnatural  excitant  is 
correspondingly  depressing ;  and  the  melancholy,  the 
"  overwhelming  horror "  that  ensues,  calls  for  a  re- 
newal of  the  stimulus.  The.  dose  must  be  gradually 
increased  to  produce  the  original  exhilaration,  f  The 

*  So  far  as  its  effects  are  concerned,  it  matters  little  in  what  form 
opium  is  taken,  whether  solid  as  in  pills,  liquid  as  in  laudanum,  or  vapor- 
ized, as  when  inhaled  from  a  pipe.  The  opium  slave  is  characterized  by 
trembling  steps,  a  curved  spine,  sunken  glassy  eyes,  sallow  withered  feat- 
ures, and  often  by  contraction  of  the  muscles  of  the  neck  and  fingers.  In 
the  East,  when  the  drug  ceases  its  influence,  the  opium-eater  renews  it  with 
corrosive  sublimate  till,  finally,  this  also  fails  of  effect,  and  he  gradually 
sinks  into  the  grave. 

t  The  victim  of  opium  is  bound  to  a  drug  from  which  he  derives  no 
benefits,  but  which  slowly  deprives  him  of  health  and  happiness,  finally  to 
end  in  idiocy  or  premature  death.  Whatever  the  victim's  condition  or 
surroundings  may  be,  the  opium  must  be  taken  at  certain  times  with  in- 
exorable regularity.  The  liquor  or  tobacco  user  can,  for  a  time,  go  without 
the  use  of  these  agents,  and  no  regular  hours  are  necessary.  During  sick- 
ness, and  more  especially  during  the  eruptive  fevers,  he  does  not  desire 
tobacco  or  liquor.  The  opium-eater  has  no  such  reprieves ;  his  dose  must 
be  taken,  and,  in  painful  complications  affecting  the  stomach,  a  large  in- 
crease is  demanded  to  sustain  the  system.  If,  in  forming  the  habit,  two 
doses  are  taken  each  day,  the  victim  is  obliged  to  maintain  that  number. 


220  THE     NERVOUS     SYSTEM.  [203,204. 

seductive  nature  of  the  drug  leads  the  unfortunate 
victim  on  step  by  step  until  he  finds  himself  fast 
bound  in  the  fetters  of  one  of  the  most  tyrannical 
habits  known  to  man. 

To  go  on  is  to  wreck  all  one's  powers — physical 
and  mental.  To  throw  off  the  habit,  requires  a  de- 
termination that  but  few  possess.  Yet  even  when 
the  custom  is  broken,  the  system  is  long  in  recover- 
ing, from  the  shock.  There  seems  to  be  a  failure  of 
every  organ.  The  digestion  is  weakened,  food  is  no 
longer  relished,  the  muscles  waste,  the  skin  shrivels, 
the  nervous  centers  are  paralyzed,  and  a  premature 
old  age  comes  on  apace.  De  Quincey,  four  months 
after  he  had  cast  away  the  opium-bonds,  wrote, 
"Think  of  me  as  one  still  agitated,  writhing,  throb- 
bing, palpitating,  shattered." 

No  person  can  be  too  careful  in  the  use  of  lau- 
danum, paregoric,  and  morphine.  They  may  be 
taken  on  a  physician's  prescription  as  a  sedative 
from  racking  pain,*  but  if  followed  up  for  any 

It  is  the  unceasing,  everlasting  slavery  of  regularity  that  humiliates  opium- 
eaters  by  a  sense  of  their  own  weakness.— HUBBARD  on  The  Opium  Habit  and 
Alcoholism. 

*  Many  persons  learn  to  inject  morphine  beneath  the  skin  by  means 
of  a  "hypodermic  syringe."  The  operation  is  painless,  and  seems  an  inno- 
cent one.  It  throws  the  narcotic  directly  into  the  circulation,  and  relief 
from  pain  is  often  almost  instantaneous.  But  the  danger  of  forming  the 
opium  habit  is  not  lessened,  and  the  effect  of  using  the  drug  in  this  form 
for  a  long  time  is  just  as  injurious  as  opium-smoking  itself.  "  Opium  in 
one  of  its  forms  enters  largely  into  the  composition  of  many  of  the  pain- 
killers and  patent  medicines  so  freely  advertised  for  domestic  use  in  the 
present  day,  and  for  this  reason  the  greatest  care  is  needed  in  having 
recourse  to  any  of  them.  Taken,  perhaps,  in  the  first  instance,  to  alleviate 
the  torments  of  neuralgia  or  toothache,  what  proves  to  be  a  remedy  soon 
becomes  a  source  of  gratification,  which  the  wretchedness  that  follows  on 
abstinence  renders  increasingly  difficult  to  lay  aside.  The  same  must  be 


204,205.]  CHLORAL    HYDRATE.  221 

length  of  time,  the  powerful  habit  may  be  formed 
ere  one  is  aware.  Then  comes  the  opium-eater's 
grave,  or  the  opium-eater's  struggle  for  life  1 

4.    CHLORAL    HYDRATE. 

Chloral  Hydrate  is  a  drug  frequently  used  to 
cause  sleep.  It  leaves  behind  no  headache  or  lassi- 
tude, as  is  often  the  case  with  morphine.  It  is,  how- 
ever, a  treacherous  remedy.  It  is  cumulative  in  its 
effects,  i.  e.,  even  a  small  and  harmless  dose,  per- 
sisted in  for  a  long  period,  may  produce  a  gradual 
accumulation  of  evil  results  that  in  the  end  will 
prove  fatal. 

The  Physiological  Effect  of  its  prolonged  use  is 
very  marked.  The  appetite  becomes  capricious.  The 
secretions  are  unnatural.  Nausea  and  flatulency 
often  ensue.  Then  the  nervous  system  is  involved. 
The  heart  is  affected.  Sleep,  instead  of  responding 
to  the  drug,  as  at  first,  is  broken  and  disturbed.  The 
eyesight  fails.  The  circulation  is  enfeebled,  and  the 
pulse  becomes  weak,  rapid,  and  irregular.  There  is 
a  tendency  to  fainting  and  to  difficult  respiration. 
Sometimes  the  impoverished  blood  induces  a  disease 


said  of  bromide  of  potassium  and  hydrate  of  chloral,  frequently  resorted  to 
as  a  remedy  for  sleeplessness :  the  system  quickly  becomes  habituated  to 
their  use,  and  they  can  then  be  relinquished  only  at  the  cost  of  much  suf- 
fering. Indeed,  the  last  mentioned  of  these  two  drugs  obtains  over  the 
mind  a  power  which  may  be  compared  to  that  of  opium,  and  is,  moreover, 
liable  to  occasion  the  disease  known  as  chloralism,  by  which  the  system 
ultimately  becomes  a  complete  wreck.  Looking  at  the  whole  question  of 
the  medicinal  use  of  narcotics,  it  is  perhaps  not  too  much  to  say  that  they 
should  never  be  employed  except  with  the  authority  of  a  competent  medical 
adviser.— Chambers'  Journal. 


222  THE     NEKVOUS     SYSTEM.  [206, 206. 

resembling  scurvy,  the  ends  of  the  fingers  ulcerate, 
and  the  face  is  disfigured  by  blotches.  An  excessive 
dose  may  result  in  death. 

Prolonged  habitual  use  of  chloral  hydrate  tends  to 
debase  the  mind  and  morals  of  the  subject  in  the  same 
manner  as  indulgence  in  alcohol,  ether,  or  chloroform. 

5.  CHLOROFORM. 

Chloroform  is  an  artificial  product  generally  ob- 
tained, by  distillation,  from  a  mixture  of  chloride  of 
lime,  water,  and  alcohol.  It  was  discovered  in  1831 
by  Samuel  Guthrie,  of  Sackett's  Harbor,  New  York. 
It  is  a  colorless,  transparent  volatile  liquid,  with  a 
strong  ethereal  odor. 

Physiological  Effect. —  Chloroform  is  a  powerful 
anaesthetic,  which,  when  inhaled,  causes  a  temporary 
paralysis  of  the  nervous  system,  and  thus  a  complete 
insensibility  to  pain.  There  is  great  peril  attending 
its  use,  even  in  the  hands  of  the  most  skillful  and 
experienced  practitioners.  It  is  sometimes  prescribed 
by  a  physician,  and  afterward  (as  in  the  case  of  lau- 
danum, morphine,  and  chloral)  the  sufferer,  charmed 
with  the  release  from  pain  and  the  peaceful  slumber 
secured,  buys  the  Lethean  liquid  for  himself.  Its 
use  soon  becomes  an  apparent  necessity.  The  crav- 
ing for  the  narcotic  at  a  stated  time  is  almost  irre- 
sistible. The  patient,  compelled  to  give  up  the  use 
of  chloroform,  will  demand,  entreat,  pray  for  another 
dose,  in  a  heart-rending  manner,  never  to  be  for- 
gotten. Paleness  and  debility,  the  earliest  symp- 
toms, are  followed  by  mental  prostration.  Famil- 


206,207.]  COCAINE.  223 

iarity  with  this  dangerous  drug  begets  carelessness, 
and  its  victims  are  frequently  found  dead  in  their 
beds,  with  the  handkerchief  from  which  they  inhaled 
the  volatile  poison  clutched  in  their  lifeless  hands. 

6.    COCAINE. 

Cocaine  is  an  alkaloid  prepared  from  the  ery- 
throxylon  coca,  a  shrub,  five  or  six  feet  high,  found 
wild  in  the  mountainous  regions  of  Ecuador  and 
Peru,  where  it  is  also  cultivated  by  the  natives.  The 
South  American  Indians,  for  centuries,  have  chewed 
coca  leaves  as  a  stimulant,  but  the  highly  poisonous 
principle,  now  called  cocaine,  to  which  the  plant 
owes  its  peculiar  effects,  was  not  discovered  till 
1859.  Within  a  few  years  this  drug  has  come  into 
favor  as  an  agent  to  produce  local  anaesthesia,  and 
has  proved  exceedingly  valuable  in  surgical  opera- 
tions upon  the  eye  and  other  sensitive  organs.  It 
has  already,  however,  been  diverted  from  its  legiti- 
mate use  as  a  benefaction,  and  to  the  other  evils 
of  the  day  is  now  added  the  "cocaine  habit,"  which 
is,  perhaps,  even  more  dangerous  and  difficult  to 
abandon  than  either  the  alcohol  or  the  opium  habit. 

Physiological  Effect.  —  Applied  locally,  cocaine 
greatly  lessens  and  even  annihilates  pain.  Taken 
internally,  it  acts  as  a  powerful  stimulant  to  the 
nervous  system,  its  physiological  action  being  simi- 
lar to  that  of  theine  (p.  170),  caffeine,  and  theo- 
bromine.  Used  hypodermically,  its  immediate  effect, 
says  one  to  whom  it  was  thus  administered,  is  to 
cause  "great  pallor  of  countenance,  profuse  frontal 


224  THE     NEKVOUS     SYSTEM.  [207,208. 

perspiration,  sunken  eyes,  enlarged  pupils,  lessened 
sensitiveness  of  the  cornea  and  conjunctiva,  lowered 
arterial  tension,  and  a  feeble  pulse  and  heartbeat. 
Under  its  influence  I  could  not  reason.  Every  thing 
seemed  to  run  through  my  brain,  and  in  vain  I 
summoned  all  my  will-power  to  overcome  an  over- 
whelming sleepiness."  A  few  doses  of  this  drug  will 
in  some  persons  produce  temporary  insanity.  Used 
to  excess,  it  leads  to  permanent  madness  or  idiocy. 
"Cocaine,"  says  a  writer  in  the  Medical  Review,  "is 
a  dangerous  therapeutic  toy  not  to  be  used  as  a 
sensational  plaything.  If  it  should  come  into  as 
general  use  as  the  other  intoxicants  of  its  class,  it 
will  help  to  fill  the  asylums,  inebriate  and  insane." 


PRACTICAL     QUESTIONS. 

1.  Why  is   the   pain   of  incipient   hip-disease   frequently  felt   in   the 
knee? 

2.  Why  does  a  child  require  more  sleep  than  an  aged  person? 

3.  When  you  put  your  finger  in  the  palm  of  a  sleeping  child,  why  will 
he  grasp  it? 

4.  How  may  we  strengthen  the  brain? 

5.  What  is  the  object  of  pain? 

6.  Why  will  a  blow  on  the  stomach  sometimes  stop  the  hear  ? 

7.  How  long  will  it  take  for  the  brain  of  a  man  six  feet  high  to  receive 
news  of  an  injury  to  his  foot,  and  to  reply? 

.  8.  How  can  we  grow  beautiful? 
9.  Why  do  intestinal  worms  sometimes  affect  a  child's  sight? 

10.  Is  there  any  indication  of  character  in  physiognomy? 

11.  When  one's  finger  is  burned,  where  is  the  ache? 

12.  Is  a  generally -cloed  parlor  a  healthful  room? 

13.  Why  can  an  idle  scholar  read  his  lesson  and  at  the  same  time  count 
the  marbles  in  his  pocket? 

14.  In  amputating   a  limb,  what  part,  when  divided,  will  cause  the 
keenest  pain? 

15.  What  is  the  effect  of  bad  air  on  nervous  people? 

16.  Is  there  any  truth  in  the  proverb  that  "he  who  sleeps  dines"? 


208-210.]  PRACTICAL     QUESTIONS.  225 

17.  What  does  a  high,  wide  forehead  indicate  ? 

18.  How  does  indigestion  frequently  cause  a  headache? 

19.  What  is  the  cause  of  one's  foot  being  "  asleep "  ?  * 

20.  When  an  injury  to  the  nose  has  been  remedied  by  transplanting 
skin  from  the  forehead,  why  is  a  touch  to  the  former  felt  in  the  latter? 

21.  Are  closely-curtained  windows  healthful? 

22.  Why,  in  falling  from  a  height,  do  the  limbs  instinctively  take  a  po- 
sition to  defend  the  important  organs? 

23.  What  causes  the  pylorus  to  open  and  close  at  the  right  time? 

24.  Why  is  pleasant  exercise  most  beneficial? 

25.  Why  does  grief  cause  one  to  lose  his  appetite? 

26.  Why  should  we  never  study  directly  after  dinner? 

27.  What  produces  the  peristaltic  movement  of  the  stomach? 

28.  Why  is  a  healthy  child  so  restless  and  full  of  mischief? 

29.  Why  is  a  slight  blow  on  the  back  of  a  rabbit's  neck  fatal? 

30.  Why  can  one  walk  and  carry  on  a  conversation  at  the  same  time? 

31.  What  are  the  dangers  of  over-study? 

32.  What  is  the  influence  of  idleness  upon  the  brain? 

33.  State  the  close  relation  which  exists  between  physical  and  mental 
health  and  disease. 

34.  In  what  consists  the  value  of  the  power  of  habit? 

35.  How  many  pairs  of  nerves  supply  the  eye? 

36.  Describe  the  reflex  actions  in  reading  aloud. 

37.  Under  what  circumstances  does  paralysis  occur? 

38.  If  the  eyelids  of  a  profound  sleeper  were  raised,  and  a  candle  brought 
near,  would  the  iris  contract? 

39.  How  does  one  cough  in  his  sleep? 

40.  Give  illustrations  of  the  unconscious  action  of  the  brain. 

41.  Is  chewing  tobacco  more  injurious  than  smoking? 

42.  Ought  a  man  to  retire  from  business  while  his  faculties  are  still  un- 
impaired ? 

43.  Which  is  the  more  exhaustive  to  the  brain,  worry  or  severe  mental 
application  ? 

44.  Is  it  a  blessing  to  be  placed  beyond  the  necessity  for  work? 

45.  Show  how  anger,  hate,  and  the  other  degrading  passions  are  de- 
structive to  the  brain,  t 


*  Here  the  nervous  force  is  prevented  from  passing  by  compression.  Just  how  this 
is  done,  or  what  is  kept  from  passing,  we  can  not  tell.  If  a  current  of  electricity  were 
moving  through  a  rubber  tube  full  of  mercury,  a  slight  squeeze  would  interrupt  it. 
These  cases  may  depend  on  the  same  general  principle,  but  we  can  not  assert  it. — HUX- 
LEY. The  tingling  sensation  caused  by  the  compression  is  transferred  to  the  foot, 
whence  the  nerve  starts. 

t  "  One  of  the  surest  means  for  keeping  the  body  and  mind  in  perfect  health  consists 
in  learning  to  hold  the  passions  in  subservience  to  the  reasoning  faculties.  This  rule 
applies  to  every  passion.  Man,  distinguished  from  all  other  animals  by  the  peculiarity 


226  THE     NERVOUS    SYSTEM. 

46.  Are  not  amusements,  to  repair  the  waste  of  the  nervous  energy, 
especially  needed  by  persons  whose  life  is  one  of  care  and  toil? 

47.  Is  not  severe  mental  labor  incompatible  with   a  rapidly-growing 
body? 

48.  How  shall  we  induce  the  system  to  perform  all  its  functions  regu- 
larly? 

49.  How  does  alcohol  interfere  with  the  action  of  the  nerves? 

50.  "What  is  the  general  effect  of  alcohol  upon  the  character? 

51.  Does  alcohol  tend  to  produce  clearness  and  vigor  of  thought? 

52.  What  is  the  general  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  muscles  ? 

53.  Does  alcohol  have  any  effect  on  the  bones?    The  skin? 

54.  What  is  the  cause  of  the  "  alcoholic  chill "  ? 

55.  Show  how  alcohol  tends  to  develop  man's  lower,  rather  than  his 
higher,  nature. 

56.  When  we  wish  really  to  strengthen  the  brain,  should  we  use  al- 
cohol? 

57.  Why  is  alcohol  used  to  preserve  anatomical  specimens? 

58.  What  is  meant  by  an  inherited  taste  for  liquor? 

59.  Ought  a  person  to  be  punished  for  a  crime  committed  during  intox- 
ication? 

60.  Should  a  boy  ever  smoke? 

61.  To  what  extent  are  we  responsible  for  the  health  of  our  body  ? 

62.  Why  does  alcohol  tend  to  collect  in  the  brain? 

63.  Does  the  use  of  alcohol  tend  to  increase  crime  and  poverty? 


that  his  reason  is  placed  above  his  passions  to  be  the  director  of  his  will,  can  protect 
himself  from  every  mere  animal  degradation  resulting  from  passionate  excitement.  The 
education  of  the  man  should  be  directed  not  to  suppress  such  passions  as  are  ennobling, 
but  to  bring  all  under  governance,  and  specially  to  subdue  those  most  destructive  pas- 
sions, anger,  hate,  and  fear." 


VIII. 

THE  SPECIAL  SENSES. 


"  SEE  how  yon  beam  of  seeming  white 
Is  braided  out  of  seven-hued  light ; 
Yet  in  those  lucid  globes  no  ray 
By  any  chance  shall  break  astray. 
Hark,  how  the  rolling  surge  of  sound, 
Arches  and  spirals  circling  round, 
Wakes  the  hush'd  spirit  through  thine  ear 
With  music  it  is  heaven  to  hear." 

HOLMES. 

"Let  us  remember  that  if  we  get  a  glimpse  of  the  details  of  natural 
phenomena,  and  of  those  movements  which  constitute  life,  it  is  not  in  con- 
sidering them  as  a  whole,  but  in  analyzing  them  as  far  as  our  limited  means 
will  permit.  In  the  vibrations  of  the  globe  of  air  which  surrounds  our 
planet,  as  in  the  undulations  of  the  ether  which  fills  the  immensity  of  space, 
it  is  always  by  molecules  which  are  intangible  for  us,  put  in  motion  by 
nature,  always  by  the  infinitely  little,  that  she  acts  in  exciting  the  organs  of 
sense,  and  she  has  modeled  these  organs  in  a  proportion  which  enables  them 
to  partake  in  the  movement  which  she  impresses  upon  the  universe.  She 
can  paint  with  equal  facility  on  a  fraction  of  a  line  of  space  on  the  retina, 
the  grandest  landscape  or  the  nervelets  of  a  rose-leaf ;  the  celestial  vault  on 
which  Sirius  is  but  a  luminous  point,  or  the  sparkling  dust  of  a  butterfly's 
wing :  the  roar  of  the  tempest,  the  roll  of  thunder,  the  echo  of  an  avalanche, 
find  equal  place  in  the  labyrinth  whose  almost  imperceptible  cavities  seem 
destined  to  receive  only  the  most  delicate  sounds." 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  SPECIAL  SENSES. 


H 


1.   THE  TOUCH...  \    '   _ 

(2.   Its  Uses. 


1.   Description  of  the  Organ. 


2.   THE  TASTE 


3.  THE  SMELL 


4.  THE  HEARING 


-:JS 

-k 


1.   Description  of  the  Organ. 
Its  Uses. 


1.   Description  of  the  Organ. 
Its  Uses. 


5.  THE  SIGHT 


f  a.  External  Ear. 

1.  Description    of   the          ,*-.-,„     -^ 

\  b.  Middle  Ear. 

0rSan [  c.  Internal  Ear. 

2.  How  we  hear. 

3.  Hygiene  of  the  Ear. 

1.  Description  of  the  Organ. 

2.  Eyelids,  and  Tears. 

3.  Structure  of  the  Retina. 

4.  How  we  see. 

5.  The  Use  of  the  Crystalline  Lens. 

6.  Near  and  Far  Sight. 

7.  Color-blindness. 

( 8.   Hygiene  of  the  Eyes. 


THE    SPECIAL    SENSES. 

1.    TOUCH. 

Description.  —  Touch  is  sometimes  called  the 
"  common  sense,"  since  its  nerves  are  spread  over  the 
whole  body.  It  is  most  delicate,  however,  in  the 
point  of  the  tongue  and  the  tips  of  the  fingers.  The 
surface  of  the  cutis  is  covered  with  minute,  conical 
projections  called  papillce  (Fig.  24).*  Each  one  of 
these  papillae  contains  its  tiny  nerve-twigs,  which 
receive  the  impression  and  transmit  it  to  the  brain, 
where  the  perception  is  produced. 

Uses. — Touch  is  the  first  of  the  senses  used  by  a 
child.  By  it  we  obtain  our  idea  of  solidity,  and 
throughout  life  rectify  all  other  sensations.  Thus, 
when  we  see  any  thing  curious,  our  first  desire  is  to 
handle  it. 

The  sensation  of  touch  is  generally  relied  upon, 
yet,  if  we  hold  a  marble  in  the  manner  shown  in 
Fig.  57,  it  will  seem  like  two  marbles;  and  if  we 
touch  the  fingers  thus  crossed  to  our  tongue,  we 
shall  seem  to  feel  two  tongues.  Again,  if  we  close 
our  eyes  and  let  another  person  move  one  of  our 
fingers  over  a  plane  surface,  first  lightly,  then  with 

*  In  the  palm  of  the  hand,  where  there  are  at  least  twelve  thousand  in 
a  square  inch,  we  can  see  the  fine  ridges  along  which  they  are  arranged. 


230  THE  SPECIAL  SENSES.          [212-214. 

greater  pressure,    and   then   lightly  again,    we    shall 
think  the  surface  concave. 


FIG.  57. 


This  organ  is  capable  of  wonderful  cultivation. 
The  physician  acquires  by  practice  the  tactus  erudi- 
tus,  or  learned  touch,  which  is  often  of  great  service, 
while  the  delicacy  of  touch  possessed  by  the  blind 
almost  compensates  the  loss  of  the  absent  sense.* 
(See  p.  346.) 

2.    TASTE. 

Description. — This  sense  is  located  in  the  papillaa 
of  the  tongue  and  palate.  These  papillse  start  up 
when  tasting,  as  you  can  see  by  placing  a  drop  of 
vinegar  on  another  person's  tongue,  or  your  own 
before  a  mirror.  The  velvety  look  of  this  organ  is 
given  by  hair-like  projections  of  the  cuticle  upon 

*  The  sympathy  between  the  different  organs  shows  how  they  all  com- 
bine to  make  a  home  for  the  mind.  When  one  sense  fails,  the  others  en- 
deavor to  remedy  the  defect.  It  is  touching  to  see  how  the  blind  man  gets 
along  without  eyes,  and  the  deaf  without  ears.  Cuthbert,  though  blind,  was 
the  most  efficient  polisher  of  telescopic  mirrors  in  London.  Saunderson,  the 
successor  of  Newton  as  professor  of  mathematics  at  Cambridge,  could  dis- 
tinguish between  real  and  spurious  medals.  There  is  an  instance  recorded 
of  a  blind  man  who  could  recognize  colors.  The  author  knew  one  who  could 
tell  when  he  was  approaching  a  tree,  by  what  he  described  as  the  "  different 
feeling  of  the  air." 


213,  214.] 


TASTE. 


231 


some  of  the  papillae.     They  absorb  the  liquid  to  be 
tasted,  and  convey  it  to   the   nerves.*    The  back  of 


FIG.  58. 


The  Tongue,  showing  the  three  kinds  of  Papilla— the  conical  (D),  the  whip-like  (K,  I), 
the  circumvallate  or  entrenched  (H,  L) ;  E,  P,  G-,  mrves ;  C,  glottis.— LANKESTER. 

the  tongue  is  most  sensitive  to  salt  and  bitter  sub- 
stances, and,  as  this  part  is  supplied  by  the  ninth 
pair  of  nerves  (Fig.  56),  in  sympathy  with  the  stom- 
ach, such  flavors,  by  sympathy,  often  produce  vom- 
iting. The  edges  of  the  tongue  are  most  sensitive  to 
sweet  and  sour  substances,  and  as  this  part  is  sup- 

*  An  insoluble  substance  is  therefore  tasteless. 


232  THE     SPECIAL     SENSES.  [214-216. 

plied  by  the  fifth  pair  of  nerves,  which  also  goes  to 
the  face,  an  acid,  by  sympathy,  distorts  the  counte- 
nance. 

The  Use  of  the  Taste  was  originally  to  guide  in 
the  selection  of  food ;  but  this  sense  has  become  so 
depraved  by  condiments  and  the  force  of  habit  that 
it  would  be  a  difficult  task  to  tell  what  are  one's 
natural  tastes. 

3.    SMELL.* 

Description. — The  nose,  the  seat  of  the  sense  of 
smell,  is  composed  of  cartilage  covered  with  muscles 
and  skin,  and  joined  to  the  skull  by  small  bones. 
The  nostrils  open  at  the  back  into  the  pharynx,  and 
are  lined  by  a  continuation  of  the  mucous  membrane 
of  the  throat.  The  olfactory  nerves  (first  pair,  Fig.  55) 
enter  through  a  sieve-like,  bony  plate  at  the  roof  of 
the  nose,  and  are  distributed  over  the  inner  surface 
of  the  two  olfactory  chambers.  (See  p.  346.)  The 
object  to  be  smelled  need  not  touch  the  nose,  but  tiny 
particles  borne  on  the  air  enter  the  nasal  passages,  f 

*  The  sense  of  smell  is  so  intimately  connected  with  that  of  taste  that 
we  often  fail  to  distinguish  between  them.  G-arlic,  vanilla,  coffee  and  various 
spices,  which  seem  to  have  such  distinct  taste,  have  really  a  powerful  odor, 
but  a  feeble  flavor. 

t  Three  quarters  of  a  grain  of  musk  placed  in  a  room  will  cause  a 
powerful  smell  for  a  considerable  length  of  time  without  any  sensible  dim- 
inution in  weight,  and  the  box  in  which  musk  has  been  placed  retains  the 
perfume  for  almost  an  indefinite  period.  Haller  relates  that  some  papers 
which  had  been  perfumed  by  a  grain  of  ambergris,  were  still  very  odorif- 
erous after  a  lapse  of  forty  years.  Odors  are  transported  by  the  air  to  a 
considerable  distance.  A  dog  recognizes  his  master's  approach  by  smell 
even  when  he  is  far  away;  and  we  are  assured  by  navigators  that  the 
winds  bring  the  delicious  odors  of  the  balmy  forests  of  Ceylon  to  a  distance 
of  ten  leagues  from  the  coast.  Even  after  making  due  allowance  for  the 
effects  of  the  imagination,  it  is  certain  that  odors  act  as  an  excitant  on  the 


215,  216.] 


233 


A,  b,  c,  d,  interior  of  the  nose,  ivhich  is  lined  by  a  mucous  membrane  ;  n,  the  nose  ; 
e,  the  wing  of  the  nose ;  q,  the  nose  bones  ;  o,  the  upper  lip  ;  g,  section  of  the  upper  jaw- 
bone ;  h,  the  upper  part  of  the  mouth,  or  hard  palate ;  m,  frontal  bone  of  the  sTcutt ;  k, 
the  ganglion  or  bulb  of  the  olfactory  nerve  in  the  skull,  from  which  are  seen  the  branches 
of  the  nerve  passing  in  all  directions. 

The  Uses  of  the  sense  of  smell  are  to  guide  us  in 
the  choice  of  our  food,  and  to  warn  us  against  bad 
air,  and  unhealthy  localities.  (See  p.  348.) 

brain,  which  may  be  dangerous  when  long  continued.  They  are  especially 
dreaded  by  the  Roman  women.  It  is  well  known  that  in  ancient  times  the 
women  of  Borne  indulged  in  a  most  immoderate  use  of  baths  and  perfumes ; 
but  those  of  our  times  have  nothing  in  common  with  them  in  this  respect 
and  the  words  of  a  lady  are  quoted,  who  said  on  admiring  an  artificial  rose, 
"It  is  all  the  more  beautiful  that  it  has  no  smell."  "We  are  warned  by  the 
proverb  not  to  discuss  colors  or  tastes,  and  we  may  add  odors  also.  Men 
and  nations  differ  singularly  in  this  respect.  The  Laplander  and  the  Es- 
quimaux find  the  smell  of  fish-oil  delicious.  "Wrangel  says  his  compatriots, 
the  Russians,  are  very  fond  of  the  odor  of  pickled  cabbage,  which  forms  an 
important  part  of  their  food ;  and  asafoetida,  it  is  said,  is  used  as  a  condi- 
ment in  Persia,  and,  in  spite  of  its  name,  there  are  persons  who  do  not  find  its 
odor  disagreeable  any  more  than  that  of  valerian.—  Wonders  of  the  Human  body. 


234 


THE     SPECIAL     SENSES. 


[216,  217. 


4.     HEARING. 

Description.  —  The  ear  is  divided  into  the  external, 
middle,  and  internal  ear. 

1.    The  External  Ear  is  a  sheet  of  cartilage  curi- 

ously folded  for 
catching  sound. 
The  auditory  canal, 
23,  or  tube  of  this 
e  a  r  -t  r  u  m  p  e  t  ,  is 
about  an  inch  long. 
Across  the  lower 
end  is  stretched  the 
membrane  of  the 
tympanum,  or  drum, 
which  is  kept  soft 
by  a  fluid  wax. 

2.  The  Middle 
Ear  is  a  cavity,  at 
the  bottom  of 

which  is  the  Eustachian  tube,  G,  leading  to  the 
mouth.  Across  this  chamber  hangs  a  chain  of  three 
singular  little  bones,  0,  named  from  their  shape  the 
hammer,  the  anvil,  and  the  stirrup.  All  together 
these  tiny  bones  weigh  only  a  few  grains,  yet  they 
are  covered  by  a  periosteum,  are  supplied  with  blood- 
vessels, and  they  articulate  with  perfect  joints  (one 
a  ball-and-socket,  the  other  a  hinge),  having  sy  no  vial 
membranes,  cartilages,  ligaments,  and  muscles. 

3.    The  Internal  Ear,  or  labyrinth,  as  it  is  some- 
times called  from  its  complex  character,  is  hollowed 


The  Ear. 


217,218.]  HEAEING.  235 

out  of  the  solid  bone.  In  front,  is  the  vestibule  or 
ante-chamber,  A,  about  as  large  as  a  grain  of  wheat; 
from  it  open  three  semicircular  canals,  D,  and  the 
winding  stair  of  the  cochlea,  or  snail  shell,  E.  Here 
expand  the  delicate  fibrils  of  the  auditory  nerve. 
Floating  in  the  liquid  which  fills  the  labyrinth  is 
a  little  bag  containing  hair-like  bristles,  fine  sand, 
and  two  ear-stones  (otoliths).  All  these  knocking 
against  the  ends  of  the  nerves,  serve  to  increase  any 
impulse  given  to  the  liquid  in  which  they  lie.  Fi- 
nally, to  complete  this  delicate  apparatus,  in  the 
cochlea  are  minute  tendrils,  named  the  fibers  of 
Corti,  from  their  discoverer.  These  are  regularly 
arranged, — the  longest  at  the  bottom,  and  the  short- 
est at  the  top.  Could  this  spiral  plate,  which  coils 
two  and  a  half  times  around,  be  unrolled  and  made 
to  stand  upright,  it  would  form  a  beautiful  micro- 
scopic harp  of  three  thousand  strings.  If  it  were 
possible  to  strike  these  cords  as  one  can  the  key- 
board of  a  piano,  he  could  produce  in  the  mind  of 
the  person  experimented  upon  every  variety  of  tone 
which  the  ear  can  distinguish. 

How  We  Hear. — Whenever  one  body  strikes  an- 
other in  the  air,  waves  are  produced,  just  as  when 
we  throw  a  stone  into  the  water  a  series  of  con- 
centric circles  surrounds  the  spot  where  it  sinks. 
These  waves  of  air  strike  upon  the  membrane.  This 
vibrates,  and  sends  the  motion  along  the  chain"  of 
bones  in  the  middle  ear  to  the  fluids  of  the  laby- 
rinth. Here  bristles,  sand,  and  stones  pound  away, 
and  the  wondrous  harp  of  the  cochlea,  catching  up 


236  THE     SPECIAL     SENSES.  [218,219. 

the  pulsations,*  carries  them  to  the  fibers  of  the  au- 
ditory nerve,  which  conveys  them  to  the  brain,  and 
gives  to  the  mind  the  idea  of  sound. 

Care  of  the  Ear. — The  delicacy  of  the  ear  is  such 
that  it  needs  the  greatest  care.  Cold  water  should 
not  be  allowed  to  enter  the  auditory  canal.  If  the 
wax  accumulate,  never  remove  it  with  a  hard  instru- 
ment, lest  the  delicate  membrane  be  injured,  but 
with  a  little  warm  water,  after  which  turn  the  head 
to  let  the  water  run  out,  and  wipe  the  ear  dry.  The 
hair  around  the  ears  should  never  be  left  wet,  as  it 
may  chill  this  sensitive  organ.  If  an  insect  get  in 
the  external  ear,  pour  in  a  little  oil  to  kill  it,  and 
then  remove  with  tepid  water.  The  object  of  the 
Eustachian  tube  is  to  admit  air  into  the  ear,  and 
thus  equalize  the  pressure  on  the  membrane.  If  it 
become  closed  by  a  cold,  or  if,  from  any  cause,  the 
pressure  be  made  unequal,  so  as  to  produce  an  un- 
pleasant feeling  in  the  ear,  relief  may  often  be  ob- 
tained by  grasping  the  nose  and  forcibly  swallowing. 
(See  p.  350.) 

5.    SIGHT. 

Description. — The  eye  is  lodged  in  a  bony  cavity, 
protected  by  the  overhanging  brow.  It  is  a  globe, 
about  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  ball  is  covered  by 

*  The  original  motion  is  constantly  modified  by  the  medium  through 
which  it  passes.  The  bristles,  otoliths,  and  Cortian  fibers  of  the  ear,  and 
the  rods  and  cones  of  the  eye  (p.  239)  serve  to  convert  the  vibrations  into 
pulsations  which  act  as  stimuli  of  the  appropriate  nerve.  The  molecular 
change  thus  produced  in  the  nerve-fibers  is  propagated  to  the  brain,— 
See  Popular  Physics,  p.  182, 


219,220.]  SIGHT.  237 

three  coats — (1)  the  sclerotic,  d,  a  tough,  horny  casing, 
which  gives  shape  to  the  eye,  the  convex,  trans- 
parent part  in  front  forming  a  window,  the  cornea,  c; 


The  Eye. 

(2)  the  choroid,  e,  a  black  lining,  to  absorb  the  super- 
fluous light;*  and  (3)  the  retina,  5,  a  membrane  in 
which  expand  fibers  of  the  optic  nerve,  o.  The  crys- 
talline lens,  a,  brings  the  rays  of  light  to  a  focus  on 
the  retina.  The  lens  is  kept  in  place  by  the  ciliary 
processes,  g,  arranged  like  the  rays  in  the  disk  of  a 
passion-flower.  Between  the  cornea  and  the  crys- 
talline lens  is  a  limpid  fluid  termed  the  aqueous 
humor;  while  the  vitreous  humor — a  transparent, 

*  Neither  white  rabbits  nor  albinos  have  this  black  lining,  and  hence 
their  sight  is  confused. 


238 


THE     SPECIAL     SENSES. 


[220,  221. 


FIG.  62. 


jelly-like  liquid — fills  the  space  (h)  back  of  the  crys- 
talline lens.    The  pupil,  Jc,  is  a  hole  in  the  colored, 
muscular  curtain,  i,  the  iris  (rainbow).     (See  p.  352.) 
Eyelids  and   Tears. — The  eyelids  are  close-fitting 

shutters  to  screen  the 
eye.  The  inner  side  is 
lined  with  a  mucous 
membrane  that  is  ex- 
ceedingly  sensitive, 
and  thus  aids  in  pro- 
D  tecting  the  eye  from 
any  irritating  sub- 
stance. The  looseness 
of  the  skin  favors 
B  swelling  from  inflam- 
mation or  the  effusion 
of  blood,  as  in  a  "black 

eye."  The  eyelashes  serve  as  a  kind  of  sieve  to  ex- 
clude the  dust,  and,  with  the  lids,  to  shield  against 
a  blinding  light.  Just,  within  the  lashes  are  oil 
glands,  which  lubricate  the  edges  of  the  lids,  and 
prevent  them  from  adhering  to  each  other.  The 
tear  or  lachrymal  gland,  (7,  is  an  oblong  body  lodged 
in  the  bony  wall  of  the  orbit.  It  empties  by  several 
ducts  upon  the  inner  surface,  at  the  outer  edge  of 
the  upper  eyelid.  Thence  the  tears,  washing  the  eye, 
run  into  the  lachrymal  lake,  D,  a  little  basin  with  a 
rounded  border  fitted  for  their  reception.  On  each 
side  of  this  lake  two  canals,  C,  C,  drain  off  the 
overplus  through  the  duct,  J5,  into  the  nose.  In 
old  age  and  in  disease,  these  canals  fail  to  conduct 


The  Eyelashes  and  the  Tear-glands. 


221,  222.] 


STRUCTURE     OF     THE     RETINA. 


239 


FIG.  63. 


the  tears  away,  and  hence  the  lachrymal  lake  over- 
flows upon  the  face. 

Structure  of  the  Retina. — In  Fig.  63  is  shown  a 
section  of  the  retina,  greatly  mag- 
nified, since  this  membrane  never 
exceeds  ^V  of  an  inch  in  thickness. 
On  the  inner  surface  next  to  the 
vitreous  humor,  is  a  lining  mem- 
brane not  shown  in  the  cut.  Next 
to  the  choroid  and  comprising  about 
J  the  entire  thickness  of  the  retina, 
is  a  multitude  of  transparent,  color- 
less, microscopic  rods,  a,  evenly  ar- 
ranged and  packed  side  by  side, 
like  the  seeds  on  the  disk  of  a 
sunflower.  Among  them,  at  regular 
intervals,  are  interspersed  the  cones, 
&.  Delicate  nerve  fibers  pass  from 
the  ends  of  the  rods  and  cones, 
each  expanding  into  a  granular 
body,  c,  thence  weaving  a  mesh,  d, 
and  again  expanding  into  the  gran- 
ules, /.  Last  is  a  layer  of  fine 
nerve-fibers,  #,  and  gray,  ganglionic  cells,  h,  like  the 
gray  matter  of  the  brain,  whence  filaments  extend 
into  i,  the  fibers  of  the  optic  nerve.  (See  p.  354.) 

The  layer  of  rods  and  cones  is  to  the  eye  what 
the  bristles,  otoliths,  and  Cortian  fibers  are  to  the 
ear.  Indeed,  the  nerve  itself  is  insensible  to  light. 
At  the  point  where  it  enters  the  eye,  there  are  no 
rods  and  cones,  and  this  is  called  the  blind  spot,  A 


Structure  of  the  Betina. 


240  THE     SPECIAL     SENSES.  [222,223. 

simple  experiment  will  illustrate  the  fact.  Hold  this 
book  directly  before  the  face,  and,  closing  the  left 
eye,  look  steadily  with  the  right  at  the  left-hand 
circle  in  Fig.  64.  Move  the  book  back  and  forth, 

PIG.  64. 


and  a  point  will  be  found  where  the  right-hand 
circle  vanishes  from  sight.  At  that  moment  its 
light  falls  upon  the  spot  where  the  rods  and  cones 
are  lacking. 

How  We  See. — There  is  believed  to  be  a  kind  of 
universal  atmosphere,  termed  ether,  filling  all  space. 
This  substance  is  infinitely  more  subtle  than  the  air, 
and  occupies  its  pores,  as  well  as  those  of  all  other 
'substances.  As  sound  is  caused  by  waves  in  the 
atmosphere,  so  light  is  produced  by  waves  in  the 
ether.  A  lamp-light,  for  example,  sets  in  motion 
waves  of  ether,  which  pass  in  through  the  pupil 
of  the  eye,  to  the  retina,  where  the  rods  and  cones 
transmit  the  vibration  through  the  optic  nerve  to 
the  brain,  and  then  the  mind  perceives  the  light. 
(Note.  p.  236.) 

N  The  Use  of  the  Crystalline  Lens.*— A  convex 
lens,  as  a  common  burning-glass,  bends  the  rays  of 

*  The  uses  of  the  eye  and  ear  are  dependent  upon  the  principles  of  Op- 
tics and  Acoustics.  They  are  therefore  best  treated  in  Physics. 


223,224.]  NEAR     AND     FAR     SIGHT.  241 

light  which  pass  through  it,  so  that  they  meet  at  a 
point  called  the  focus.  The  crystalline  lens  con- 
verges the  rays  of  light  which  enter  the  eye,  and 

FIG.  65. 


Diagram  stunving  how  an  image  of  an  object  is  fanned  upon  the  Retina  by  the 
Crystalline  Lens. 

brings  them  to  a  focus  on  the  retina.*  The  healthy 
lens  has  a  power  of  changing  its  convexity  so  as 
to  adapt  f  itself  to  near  and  to  distant  objects.  (See 
Fig.  66.) 

Near  and  Far  Sight. — If  the  lens  be  too  convex, 
it  will  bring  the  rays  to  a  focus  before  they  reach 
the  retina ;  if  too  flat,  they  will  reach  the  retina  be- 


*  The  cornea  and  the  humors  of  the  eye  act  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  crystalline  lens,  but  not  so  powerfully. 

t  The  simplest  way  of  experimenting  on  the  "adjustment  of  the  eye" 
is  to  stick  two  stout  needles  upright  into  a  straight  piece  of  wood, — not 
exactly,  but  nearly  in  the  same  straight  line,  so  that,  on  applying  the  eye 
to  one  end  of  the  piece  of  wood,  one  needle  (A)  shall  be  seen  about  six 
inches  off,  and  the  other  (B)  just  on  one  side  of  it,  at  twelve  inches  dis- 
tance. If  the  observer  looks  at  the  needle  B  he  will  find  that  he  sees  it 
very  distinctly,  and  without  the  least  sense  of  effort ;  but  the  image  of  A 
is  blurred,  and  more  or  less  double.  Now,  let  him  try  to  make  this  blurred 
image  of  the  needle  A  distinct.  He  will  find  he  can  do  so  readily  enough, 
but  that  the  act  is  accompanied  by  a  sense  of  fatigue.  And  in  proportion 
as  A  becomes  distinct,  B  will  become  blurred.  Nor  will  any  effort  enable 
him  to  see  A  and  B  distinctly  at  the  same  time.— HUXLEY. 


242 


THE     SPECIAL     SENSES. 


[224,  225. 


FIG.  66. 


fore  coming  to  a  focus.  In  either  case,  the  sight 
will  be  indistinct.  A  more  common  defect,  however, 
is  m  the  shape  of  the  globe  of  the  eye,  which  is 

either  flattened  or 
elongated.  In  the 
former  case  (see  G, 
Fig.  67),  objects  at 
a  distance  can  be 
seen  most  distinctly 
— hence  that  is  called 
far-sightedness.*  In 
the  latter,  objects  near  by  are  clearer,  and  hence  this 
is  termed  near-sightedness.  Far-sightedness  is  reme- 
died by  convex  glasses;  near-sightedness,  by  con- 

FIG.  67. 


Adjustment  of  the  Crystalline  Lens.— A,  for  far 
objects,  and  B,  for  near. 


Diagram  illustrating  the  position  of  the  fietina.—B,  in  natural  sight ;   G-,  in  far 
sight ;    and  C,  m  near 


cave.     When    glasses   will    improve    the    sight    they 
should  be  worn ;  f    any  delay  will  be  liable  to  injure 

*  This  should  not  be  confounded  with  the  long  sight  of  old  people, 
which  is  caused  by  the  stiffness  of  the  ciliary  muscles,  whereby  the  lens 
can  not  adapt  itself  to  the  varying  distances  of  objects. 

t  Dr.  Henry  W.  Williams,  the  celebrated  ophthalmologist,  says  that,  in 
some  cases,  glasses  are  more  necessary  at  six  or  eight  years  of  age  than  to 
the  majority  of  healthy  eyes  at  sixty.  Sometimes  children  find  accidentally 
that  they  can  see  better  through  grandmother's  spectacles.  They  should 
then  be  supplied  with  their  own. 


225,226.;)  CA&E     OF     THE     EYES.  243 

the  eyes,  by  straining  their  already  impaired  power. 
Cataract  is  a  disease  in  which  there  is  an  opacity  of 
the  crystalline  lens  or  its  capsules,  which  obscures 
the  vision.  The  lens  may  be  caused  to  be  absorbed, 
or  may  be  removed  by  a  skillful  surgeon  and  the 
defect  remedied  by  wearing  convex  glasses. 

Color-blind  Persons  receive  only  two  of  the  three 
elementary  color-sensations  (green,  red,  violet).  The 
spectrum  appears  to  them  to  consist  of  two  decidedly 
different  colors,  with  a  band  of  neutral  tint  between. 
The  extreme  red  end  is  invisible,  and  a  bright  scar- 
let and  a  deep  green  appear  alike.  They  are  unable 
to  distinguish  between  the  leaves  of  a  cherry-tree 
and  its  fruit  by  the  color  of  the  two,  and  see  no 
difference  between  blue  and  yellow  cloth.  Whittier, 
the  poet,  it  is  said,  can  not  tell  red  from  green  un- 
less in  direct  sunlight.  Once  he  patched  some  dam- 
aged wall-paper  in  his  library  by  matching  a  green 
vine  in  the  pattern  with  one  of  a  bright  autumnal 
crimson.  This  defect  in  the  eye  is  often  unnoticed, 
and  many  railway  accidents  have  doubtless  happened 
through  an  inability  to  detect  the  color  of  signal 
lights. 

Care  of  the  Eyes. — The  shape  of  the  eye  can  not 
be  changed  by  rubbing  and  pressing  it,  as  many 
suppose,  but  the  sight  may  thus  be  fatally  injured. 
Children  troubled  by  near-sightedness  should  not 
lean  forward  at  their  work,  as  thereby  the  vessels 
of  the  eye  become  overcharged  with  blood.  They 
should  avoid  fine  print,  and  try,  in  every  possible 
way,  to  spare  their, eyes.  If  middle  age  be  reached 


244  THE     SPECIAL     SENSES.  [226,227. 

without  especial  difficulty  of  sight,  the  person  is 
comparatively  safe.  Most  cases  of  squinting  are 
caused  by  long-sightedness,  the  muscles  being  strained 
in  the  effort  to  obtain  distinct  vision.  In  childhood, 
it  may  be  cured  by  a  competent  surgeon,  who  will 
generally  cut  the  muscle  that  draws  the  eye  out  of 
place. 

After  any  severe  illness,  especially  after  measles, 
scarlatina,  or  typhoid  fever,  the  eyes  should  be  used 
with  extreme  caution,  since  they  share  in  the  general 
debility  of  the  body,  and  recover  their  strength  slowly. 
Healthy  eyes  even  should  never  be  used  to  read 
fine  print  or  by  a  dim  light.  Serious  injury  may  be 
caused  by  an  imprudence  of  this  kind.  Reading 
upon  the  cars  is  also  a  fruitful  source  of  harm.  The 
lens,  striving  to  adapt  itself  to  the  incessantly-vary- 
ing distance  of  the  page,  soon  becomes  wearied. 
Whenever  the  eyes  begin  to  ache,  it  is  a  warning 
that  they  are  being  overtaxed  and  need  rest. 

Objects  that  get  into  the  eye  should  be  removed 
before  they  cause  inflammation ;  rubbing  in  the 
meantime  only  irritates  and  increases  the  sensitive- 
ness. If  the  eye  be  shut  for  a  few  moments,  so  as 
to  let  the  tears  accumulate,  and  the  upper  lid  be  then 
lifted  by  taking  hold  of  it  at  the  center,  the  cinder 
or  dust  is  often  washed  away  at  once.  Trifling  ob- 
jects can  be  removed  by  simply  drawing  the  upper 
lid  as  far  as  possible  over  the  lower  one ;  when  the 
lid  flies  back  to  its  place,  the  friction  will  detach 
any  light  substance.  If  it  becomes  necessary,  turn 
the  upper  lid  over  a  pencil,  and  the  intruder  may 


227.]  CARE     OF     THE     EYES.  245 

then  be  wiped  off  with  a  handkerchief.  "  Eye- 
stones  "  are  a  popular  delusion.  When  they  seem  to 
take  out  a  cinder,  it  is  only  because  they  raise  the 
eyelid,  and  allow  the  tears  to  wash  it  out.  No  one 
should  ever  use  an  eye-wash,  except  by  medical 
advice.  The  eye  is  too  delicate  an  organ  to  be  trifled 
with,  and  when  any  disease  is  suspected,  a  reliable 
physician  should  be  consulted.  This  is  especially 
necessary,  since,  when  one  eye  is  injured,  the  other, 
by  sympathy,  is  liable  to  become  inflamed,  and  per- 
haps be  destroyed. 

When  reading  or  working,  the  light  should  be  at 
the  left  side,  or  at  the  rear ;  never  in  front. 

The  constant  increase  of  defective  eyesight  among 
the  pupils  in  our  schools  is  an  alarming  fact.  Dr. 
Agnew  considers  that  our  school-rooms  are  fast 
making  us  a  spectacle-using  people.  Near-sighted- 
ness seems  to  increase  from  class  to  class,  until  in 
the  upper  departments,  there  are  sometimes  as  high 
as  fifty  per  cent,  of  the  pupils  thus  afflicted.  The 
causes  are  (1),  desks  so  placed  as  to  make  the  light 
from  the  windows  shine  directly  into  the  eyes  of  the 
scholars;  (2),  cross-lights  from  opposite  windows; 
(3),  insufficient  light ;  (4),  small  type  that  strains  the 
eyes;  and  (5),  the  position  of  the  pupil  as  he  bends 
over  his  desk  or  slate,  causing  the  blood  to  settle  in 
his  eyes.  All  these  causes  can  be  remedied ;  the 
position  of  the  desks  can  be  changed ;  windows  can 
be  shaded,  or  new  ones  inserted ;  books  and  news- 
papers that  try  the  eyes  can  be  rejected ;  and  every 
pupil  can  be  taught  how  to  sit  at  study. 


246  THE     SPECIAL     SENSES.  [328,220. 


PRACTICAL     QUESTIONS. 

1.  Why  does  a  laundress  test  the  temperature  of  her  flat-iron  by  hold- 
ing it  near  her  cheek? 

2.  When  we  are  cold,  why  do  we  spread  the  palms  of  our  hands  before 
the  fire? 

3.  What  is  meant  by  a  "furred  tongue"? 

4.  Why  has  sand  or  sulphur  no  taste? 

5.  What  was  the  origin  of  the  word  palatable? 

6.  Why  does  a  cold  in  the  head  injure  the  flavor  of  our  coffee? 

7.  Name  some  so-called  flavors  that  are  really  sensations  of  touch. 

8.  What  is  the  object  of  the  hairs  in  the  nostrils? 

9.  What  use  does  the  nose  subserve  in  the  process  of  respiration  ? 

10.  Why  do   we   sometimes   hold   the   nose  when  we   take  unpleasant 
medicine  ? 

11.  Why  was  the  nose  placed  over  the  mouth? 

12.  Describe  how  the  hand  is  adapted  to  be  the  instrument  of  touch. 

13.  Besides  being  the  organ  of  taste,  what  use  does  the  tongue  sub- 
serve ? 

14.  Why  is  not  the  act  of  tasting  complete  until  we  swallow? 

15.  Why   do   all   things   have   the   same   flavor  when   one's  tongue  is 
"furred"  by  fever? 

16.  Which  sense  is  the  more  useful— hearing  or  sight? 

17.  Which  coat  is  the  white  of  the  eye? 

18.  What  makes  the  difference  in  the  color  of  eyes? 

19.  Why   do   we    snuff    the    air   when   we   wish   to   obtain   a  distinct 
smell? 

20.  Why  do  red-hot  iron  and  frozen  mercury  (-40°)  produce  the  same 
sensation  ? 

21.  Why  can  an  elderly  person  drink  tea  which  to  a  child  would  be 
unbearably  hot? 

22.  Why  does  an  old  man  hold  his  paper  so  far  from  his  eyes? 

23.  Would  you  rather   be   punished  on  the  tips  of  your   fingers  than 
on  the  palm  of  your  hand? 

24.  What  is  the  object  of  the  eyelashes?    Are  the  hairs  straight? 

25.  What  is  the  use  of  winking? 

26.  When  you  wink,  do  the  eyelids  touch  at  once  along  their  whole 
length?    Why? 

27.  How  many  rows  of  hairs  are  there  in  the  eyelashes? 

28.  Do  aU  nations  have  eyes  of  the  same  shape? 

29.  Why  does  snuff -taking  cause  a  flow  of  tears? 

30.  Why  does  a  fall  cause  one  to  "see  stars"? 

31.  Why  can  we  not  see  with  the  nose,  or  smell  with  the  eyes? 

32.  What  causes  the  roughness  of  a  cat's  tongue? 

33.  Is  the  cuticle  essential  to  touch? 


^U,aa0.]  PRACTICAL     QUESTIONS.  247 

34.  Can  one  tickle  himself? 

35.  Why  does  a  bitter  taste  often  produce  vomiting? 

36.  Is  there  any  danger  in  looking  "cross-eyed"  for  fun? 

37.  Should  school-room  desks  face  a  window? 

38.  "Why  do  we  look  at  a  person  to  whom  we  are  listening  attentively  * 

39.  Do  we  really  feel  with  our  fingers? 

40.  Is  the  eye  a  perfect  sphere?    (See  Fig.  61.) 

41.  How  often  dp  we  wink? 

42.  Why  is   the   interior   of  a   telescope   or  microscope   often   painted 
black? 

43.  What  is  "the  apple  of  the  eye"? 

44.  What  form  of  glasses  do  old  people  require? 

45.  Should  we  ever  wash  our  ears  with  cold  water? 

46.  What  is  the  object  of  the  winding  passages  in  the  nose? 

47.  Can  a  smoker  tell  in  the  dark,  whether  or  not  his  cigar  is  lighted? 

48.  Will  a  nerve  re-unite  after  it  has  been  cut? 

49.  Will  the  sight  give  us  an  idea  of  solidity?* 


*  A  case  occurred  a  few  years  ago,  in  London,  where  a  friend  of  my  own  performed 
an  operation  upon  a  young  woman  who  had  been  born  blind,  and,  though  an  attempt 
had  been  made  in  early  years  to  cure  her,  it  had  failed.  She  was  able  just  to  distinguish 
large  objects,  the  general  shadow,  as  it  were,  without  any  distinct  perception  of  form, 
and  to  distinguish  light  from  darkness.  She  could  work  well  with  her  needle  by  the 
touch,  and  could  use  her  scissors  and  bodkin  and  other  implements  by  the  training  of 
her  hand,  so  to  speak,  alone.  Well,  my  friend  happened  to  see  her,  and  he  examined 
her  eyes,  and  told  her  that  he  thought  he  could  get  her  sight  restored  ;  at  any  rate,  it  was 
worth  a  trial.  The  operation  succeeded ;  and,  being  a  man  of  intelligence  and  quite 
aware  of  the  interest  of  such  a  case,  he  carefully  studied  and  observed  it ;  and  he  com- 
pletely confirmed,  all  that  had  been  previously  laid  down  by  the  experience  of  similar 
cases.  There  was  one  little  incident  which  will  give  you  an  idea  of  the  education  which 
is  required  for  what  you  would  suppose  is  a  thing  perfectly  simple  and  obvious.  She 
could  not  distinguish  by  sight  the  things  that  she  was  perfectly  familiar  with  by  the 
touch,  at  least  when  they  were  first  presented  to  her  eyes.  She  could  not  recognize  even 
a  pair  of  scissors.  Now,  you  would  have  supposed  that  a  pair  of  scissors,  of  all  things 
in  the  world,  having  been  continually  used  by  her,  and  their  form  having  become  per- 
fectly familiar  to  her  hands,  would  have  been  most  readily  recognized  by  her  sight ;  and 
yet  she  did  not  know  what  they  were  ;  she  had  not  an  idea  until  she  was  told,  and  then 
she  laughed,  as  she  said,  at  her  own  stupidity.  No  stupidity  at  all ;  she  had  never  learned 
it,  and  it  was  one  of  those  things  which  she  could  not  know  without  learning.  One  of 
the  earliest  cases  of  this  kind  was  related  by  the  celebrated  Cheselden,  a  surgeon  of  the 
early  part  of  last  century.  Cheselden  relates  how  a  youth  just  in  this  condition  had  been 
accustomed  to  play  with  a  cat  and  a  dog ;  but  for  some  time  after  he  attained  his  sight 
he  never  could  tell  which  was  which,  and  used  to  be  continually  making  mistakes.  One 
day,  being  rather  ashamed  of  himself  for  having  called  the  cat  the  dog,  he  took  up  the 
cat  in  his  arms  and  looked  at  her  very  attentively  for  some  time,  stroking  her  all  the 
while  ;  and  in  this  way  he  associated  the  impression  derived  from  the  touch,  and  made 
himself  master  (so  to  speak)  of  the  whole  idea  of  the  animal.  He  then  put  the  cat  down, 
eaymg :  "  Now,  puss,  I  shall  know  you  another  time."— CARPENTER, 


248  THE     SPECIAL     SENSES.  [230. 

50.  Why  can  a  skillful  surgeon  determinate  the  condition  of  the  brain 
and  other  internal  organs  by  examining  the  interior  of  the  eye?* 

51.  Is  there  any  truth  in  the  idea  that  the  image  of  the  murderer  can 
be  seen  in  the  eye  of  the  dead  victim? 

52.  What  is  the  length  of  the  optic  nerve  ?    Ans.  About  three  fourths  of 
an  inch. 

53.  Why  does  an  injury  to  one  eye  generally  affect  the  other  eye? 
Ans.    The  optic  nerves  give  off  no  branches  in  passing  from  their  origin 

in  two  ganglia  situated  between  the  cerebrum  and  the  cerebellum,  and 
their  termination  in  the  eyeballs ;  but,  in  the  middle  of  their  course,  they 
decussate,  or  unite  in  one  mass.  The  fibers  of  the  two  nerves  here  pass  from 
side  to  side,  and  intermingle.  The  two  ganglia  are  also  united  directly  by 
fibers.  Thus  the  eyes  are  not  really  separate  organs  of  sight,  but  a  kind  of 
double  organ  to  perform  a  single  function. 


*  This  is  done  by  means  of  an  instrument  called  the  ophthalmoscope.  Light  is 
thrown  into  the  eye  with  a  concave  mirror,  and  the  interior  of  the  organ  examined  with 
a  lens. 


IX. 

HEALTH  AND  DISEASE. -DEATH 
AND  DECAY. 


"HEALTH  is  the  vital  principle  of  bliss." 

THOMSON. 

"  There  are  three  wicks  to  the  lamp  of  a  man's  life :  brain,  blood,  and 
breath.  Press  the  brain  a  little,  its  light  goes  out,  followed  by  both  the 
others.  Stop  the  heart  a  minute,  and  out  .go  all  three  of  the  wicks.  Choke 
the  air  out  of  the  lungs,  and  presently  the  fluid  ceases  to  supply  the 
other  centers  of  flame,  and  all  is  soon  stagnation,  cold,  and  darkness." 

O.  "W.  HOLMES. 

"Calmly  he  looked  on  either  Life,  and  here 
Saw  nothing  to  regret,  or  there  to  fear; 
Prom  Nature's  temp'rate  feast  rose  satisfy'd, 
Thank'd  Heaven  that  he  had  lived,  and  that  he  died." 

POPE. 


HEALTH   AND   DISEASE.-DEATH 
AND   DECAY.  '    - 

Value  of  Health.  —  The  body  is  the  instrument 
which  the  mind  uses.  If  it  be  dulled  or  nicked,  the 
effect  of  the  best  labor  will  be  impaired.  The 
grandest  gifts  of  mind  or  fortune  are  comparatively 
valueless  unless  there  be  a  healthy  body  to  use  and 
enjoy  them.  The  beggar,  sturdy  and  brave  with  his 
out-door  life,  is  really  happier  than  the  rich  man  in 
his  palace  with  the  gout  to  twinge  him  amid  his 
pleasures.  The  day  has  gone  by  when  delicacy  is 
considered  an  element  of  beauty.  Weakness  is  timid 
and  irresolute ;  strength  is  full  of  force  and  energy. 
Weakness  walks  or  creeps ;  strength  speeds  the  race, 
wins  the  goal,  and  rejoices  in  the  victory. 

False  Ideas  of  Disease.  —  It  was  formerly  sup- 
posed that  diseases  "were  caused  by  evil  spirits,  who 
entered  the  body  and  deranged  its  action.  Incanta- 
tions, spells,  etc.,  were  resorted  to  in-  order  to  drive 
them  out.  By  others,  disease  was  thought  to  come 
arbitrarily,  or  as  a  special  visitation  of  an  overruling 
power.  Hence,  it  was  to  be  removed  by  fasting  and 
prayer.  Modern  science  teaches  us  that  disease  is 
not  a  thing,  but  a  state.  When  our  food  is  properly 
assimilated,  the  waste, matter  promptly  excreted,  and 


252  HEALTH     AND     DISEASE.  [231,232. 

all  the  organs  work  in  harmony,  we  are  well ;  when 
any  derangement  of  these  functions  occurs,  we  are 
sick.  Sickness  is  discord,  as  health  is  concord.  If 
we  abuse  or  misuse  any  instrument,  we  impair  its 
ability  to  produce  a  perfect  harmony.  A  suffering 
body  is  simply  the  penalty  of  violated  law. 

Prevention  of  Disease. — Doubtless  a  large  propor- 
tion of  the  ills  which  now  afflict  and  rob  us  of  so 
much  time  and  pleasure  might  easily  be  avoided.  A 
proper  knowledge  and  observance  of  hygienic  laws 
would  greatly  lessen  the  number  of  such  diseases  as 
consumption,  catarrh,  gout,  rheumatism,  dyspepsia, 
etc.  There  are  parts  of  England  where  one  half  the 
children  die  before  they  are  five  years  old.  Every 
physiologist  knows  that  at  least  nine  tenths  of  these 
lives  could  be  saved  by  an  observance  of  the  simple 
laws  of  health.  Professor  Bennet,  in  a  lecture  at 
Edinburgh,  estimated  that,  one  hundred  thousand 
persons  die  annually  in  Great  Britain  from  causes 
easily  preventable. 

With  the  advance  of  science,  the  causes  of  many 
diseases  have  been  determined.  Vaccination  has 
been  found  to  prevent  or  mitigate  the  ravages  of 
small-pox.  Scurvy,  formerly  so  fatal  among  sailors 
that  it  was  deemed  "a  mysterious  infliction  of  Di- 
vine Justice  against  which  man  strives  in  vain,"  is 
now  entirely  avoided  by  the  use  of  vegetables  or 
lime-juice.  Cholera,  whose  approach  still  strikes 
dread,  and  for  which  there  is  no  known  specific,  is 
but  the  penalty  for  filthy  streets,  bad  drainage,  and 
over-crowded  tenements,  and  may  be  controlled,  if 


232,233.]  CURE     OF     DISEASE.  253 

not  prevented,  by  suitable  sanitary  measures.  It 
was,  no  doubt,  the  intention  that  we  should  wear  out 
by  the  general  decay  of  all  the  organs,*  rather  than 
by  the  giving  out  of  any  single  part,  and  that  all 
should  work  together  harmoniously  until  the  vital 
force  is  exhausted. 

Cure  of  Disease. — The  first  step  in  the  cure  of 
any  disease  is  to  obey  the  law  of  health  which  has 
been  violated.  If  medicine  be  taken,  it  is  not  to 
destroy  the  disease,  since  that  is  not  a  thing  to  be 
destroyed,  but  to  hold  the  deranged  action  in  check 
while  nature  repairs  the  injury,  and  again  brings 
the  system  into  harmonious  movement.  This  ten- 
dency of  nature  is  our  chief  reliance.  The  best  phy- 
sicians are  coming  to  have  diminished  confidence  in 
medicine  itself,  and  to  place  greater  dependence 
upon  sanitary  and  hygienic  measures,  and  upon  the 
efforts  which  nature  always  makes  to  repair  injuries 
and  soothe  disordered  action.  They  endeavor  only 
to  give  to  nature  a  fair  chance,  and  sometimes  to 


*  So  long  as  the  phenomena  of  waste  and  repair  are  in  harmony— so 
long,  in  other  words,  as  the  builder  follows  the  scavenger  — so  long  man 
exists  in  integrity  and  repair— just,  indeed,  as  houses  exist.  Derange  nu- 
trition, and  at  once  degeneration,  or  rather  let  us  say,  alteration  begins. 
Alas !  that  we  are  so  ignorant  that  there  are  many  things  about  our  house, 
which,  seeing  them  weaken,  we  know  not  how  to  strengthen.  About  the 
brick  and  the  mortar,  the  frame  and  the  rafters,  we  are  not  unlearned ; 
but  within  are  many  complexities,  many  chinks  and  crannies,  full  in  them- 
selves of  secondary  chinks  and  crannies,  and  these  so  small,  so  deep,  so  re- 
cessed, that  it  happens  every  day  that  the  destroyer  settles  himself  in  some 
place  so  obscure,  that,  while  he  kills,  he  laughs  at  defiance.  You  or  I  meet 
with  an  accident  in  our  watch.  We  consult  the  watchmaker,  and  he  repairs 
the  injury.  If  we  were  all  that  watchmakers,  like  ourselves,  should  be,  a 
man  could  be  made  to  keep  time  until  he  died  from  old  age  or  annihilating 
accident.  This  I  firmly  and  fully  believe.— Odd  Hours  of  a  Physician, 


254  DEATH     AND     DECAY.  [233,234. 

assist  her  by  the  intelligent  employment  of  proper 
medicines.  The  indiscriminate  use  of  patent  nos- 
trums and  sovereign  remedies  of  whose  constituents 
we  know  nothing,  and  by  which  powerful  drugs  are 
imbibed  at  hap-hazard,  can  not  be  too  greatly  depre- 
cated. When  one  needs  medicine,  he  needs  also  a 
competent  physician  to  advise  its  use. 

Death  and  Decay. — By  a  mystery  we  can  not  un- 
derstand, life  is  linked  with  death,  and  out  of  the 
decay  of  our  bodies  they,  day  by  day,  spring  afresh. 
At  last  the  vital  force  which  has  held  death  and 
decay  in  bondage,  and  compelled  them  to  minister 
to  our  growth,  and  to  serve  the  needs  of  our  life, 
faints  and  yields  the  struggle.  These  powers  which 
have  so  long  time  been  our  servants,  gather  about 
our  dying  couch,  and  their  last  offices  usher  us  into 
the  new  life  and  the  grander  possibilities  of  the 
world  to  come.  This  last  birth,  we  who  see  the 
fading,  not  the  dawning,  life,  call  death. 

"  O  Father!   grant  Thy  love  divine, 
To  make  these  mystic  temples  Thine, 
When  wasting  age  and  wearying  strife 
Have  sapp'd  the  leaning  walls  of  life  • 
When  darkness  gathers  over  all, 
And  the  last  tottering  pillars  fall, 
Take  the  poor  dust  Thy  mercy  warms, 
And  mold  it  into  heavenly  forms." 

HOLMES. 


HINTS  ABOUT   THE   SICK-ROOM. 

A  Sick-room  should  be  the  lightest  and  cheeriest  in  the 
house.  A  small,  close,  dark  bedroom  or  a  recess  is  bad  enough 
for  one  in  health,  but  unendurable  for  a  sick  person.  In  a  case 
of  fever,  and  in  many  acute  diseases,  it  should  be  remote  from 
the  noise  of  the  family ;  but  when  one  is  recovering  from  an 
accident,  and  in  all  attacks  where  quiet  is  not  needed,  the  pa- 
tient may  be  where  he  can  amuse  himself  by  watching  the 
movements  of  the  household,  or  looking  out  upon  the  street. 

The  ventilation  must  be  thorough.  Bad  air  will  poison  both 
the  sick  and  the  well.  A  fire-place  is,  therefore,  desirable. 
Windows  should  open  easily.  By  carefully  protecting  the  pa- 
tient with  extra  blankets,  the  room  may  be  frequently  aired. 
If  there  be  no  direct  draught,  much  may  be  done  to  change  the 
air,  by  simply  swinging  an  outer  door  to  and  fro  many  times. 

A  bare  floor,  with  strips  of  carpet  here  and  there  to  deaden 
noise,  is  cleanest,  and  keeps  the  air  freest  from  dust.  Cane- 
bottomed  chairs  are  preferable  to  upholstered  ones.  All  un- 
necessary furniture  should  be  removed  out  of  the  way.  A  straw 
bed  or  a  mattress  is  better  than  feathers.  The  bed-hangings, 
lace  curtains,  etc.,  should  be  taken  down.  Creaking  hinges 
should  be  oiled.  Sperm  candles  are  better  than  kerosene  lamps. 

Never  whisper  in  a  sick-room.  All  necessary  conversation 
should  be  carried  on  in  the  usual  tone  of  voice.  Do  not  call  a 
physician  unnecessarily,  but  if  one  be  employed,  obey  his  direc- 
tions implicitly.  Never  give  nostrums  over-officious  friends  may 
suggest.  Do  not  allow  visitors  to  see  the  patient,  except  it  be 
necessary.  Never  bustle  about  the  room,  nor  go  on  tiptoe,  but 
move  in  a  quiet,  ordinary  way.  Do  not  keep  the  bottles  in  the 
continued  sight  of  the  sick  person.  Never  let  drinking-water 
stand  in  the  room. 


256  WHAT     TO     DO  [238. 

Do  not  raise  the  patient's  head  to  drink,  but  have  a  cup 
with  a  long  spout,  or  use  a  bent  tube,  or  even  a  straw.  Do  not 
tempt  the  appetite  when  it  craves  no  food.  Bathe  frequently, 
but  let  the  physician  prescribe  the  method.  Give  written  direc- 
tions to  the  watchers.  Have  all  medicines  carefully  marked. 
Remove  all  soiled  clothing,  etc.,  at  once  from  the  room.  Change 
the  linen  much  oftener  than  in  health.  When  you  wish  to 
change  the  sheets,  and  the  patient  is  unable  to  rise,  roll  the 
under  sheet  tightly  lengthwise  to  the  middle  of  tha  bed ;  put 
on  the  clean  sheet,  with  half  its  width  folded  up,  closely  to  the 
other  roll ;  lift  the  patient  on  to  the  newly-made  part,  remove 
the  soiled  sheet,  and  then  spread  out  the  clean  one. 

DISINFECTANTS. 

Remember,  first,  that  deodorizers  and  disinfectants  are  not 
the  same.  A  bad  smell,  for  instance,  may  be  smothered  by 
some  more  powerful  odor,  while  its  cause  remains  uninfluenced. 
Bear  also  in  mind  the  fact  that  no  deodorizer  and  no  disinfect- 
ant can  take  the  place  of  perfect  cleanliness  and  thorough  ven- 
tilation. No  purifyer  can  rival  the  oxygen  contained  in  strong 
and  continued  currents  of  fresh,  cold  air,  and  every  disinfectant 
finds  an  indispensable  ally  in  floods  "of  scalding  water. 

An  excellent  disinfectant  may  be  made  by  dissolving  in  a 
pail  of  water  either  of  the  following :  (1),  a  quarter  of  a  pound 
of  sulphate  of  zinc  and  two  ounces  of  common  salt  for  each 
gallon  of  water ;  (2),  a  pound  and  a  half  of  copperas,  for  each 
gallon  of  water.  Towels,  bed-linen,  handkerchiefs,  etc.,  should 
be  soaked  at  least  an  hour,  in  a  solution  of  the  first  kind,  and 
then  be  boiled,  before  washing.*  Vaults,  drains,  vessels  used  in 

*  It  is  best  to  burn  all  articles  which  have  been  in  contact  with  persons 
sick  with  contagious  or  infectious  diseases. 

In  using  the  zinc  solution,  place  the  articles  in  it  as  soon  as  they  are 
removed  from  the  patient,  and  before  they  are  taken  from  the  room :  if 
practicable,  have  the  solution  boiling  hot  at  the  time.  In  fumigating 
apartments,  all  the  openings  should  be  made  as  nearly  air-tight  as  possible. 
The  articles  to  be  included  in  the  fumigation  should  be  so  exposed  and 
spread  out  that  the  sulphurous  vapor  may  penetrate  every  portion  of  them. 
For  a  room  about  ten  feet  square,  at  least  two  pounds  of  sulphur  should  be 
used;  for  larger  rooms,  proportionally  increased  quantities.  Put  the  sul- 
phur in  iron  pans  supported  upon  bricks  placed  in  wash-tubs  containing  a 


238,239.J  TILL     THE     DOCTOR     COMES.  257 

the  sick-room,  etc.,  should  be  disinfected  by  a  solution  of  the 
second  kind ;  chloride  of  lime  may  also  be  used  for  the  same 
purpose.  Rooms,  furniture,  and  articles  that  can  not  be  treated 
with  the  solution  of  the  first  kind,  should  be  thoroughly  fumi- 
gated with  burning  sulphur.  Where  walls  are  unpapered,  re- 
whitewash  with  pure,  freshly-slacked  quicklime,  adding  one  pint 
of  the  best  fluid  carbolic  acid  to  every  gallon  of  the  fluid  white- 
wash. Powdered  stone  lime  sprinkled  on  foul,  wet  places,  or 
placed  in  pans  in  damp  rooms,  will  absorb  the  moisture ;  and 
dry,  fresh  charcoal-powder  may  be  combined  with  it  to  absorb 
noxious  gases. 

WHAT    TO    DO    TILL    THE    DOCTOR    COMES. 

The  following  instructions  are  intended  simply  to  aid  in  an  emergency. 
When  accidents  or  a  sudden  severe  illness  occur,  there  is  necessarily,  in 
most  cases,  a  longer  or  shorter  interval  before  a  physician  can  arrive. 
These  moments  are  often  very  precious,  and  life  may  depend  upon  a  little 
knowledge  and  much  self-possession.  The  instructions  are  therefore  given 
as  briefly  as  possible,  that  they  may  be  easily  carried  in  the  memory.  A 
few  suggestions  in  regard  to  common  ailments  are  included. 

Burns. — When  a  person's  clothes  catch  fire,  quickly  lay  him 
on  the  ground,  wrap  him  in  a  coat,  mat,  shawl,  carpet,  or  in 
his  own  garments,  as  best  you  can  to  extinguish  the  flame.  Pour 
on  plenty  of  water  till  the  half-burned  clothing  is  cooled.  Then 
carry  the  sufferer  to  a  warm  room,  lay  him  on  a  table  or  a 
carpeted  floor,  and  with  a  sharp  knife  or  scissors  remove  his 
clothing. 

The  treatment  of  a  burn  consists  in  protecting  from  the  air.* 
An  excellent  remedy  is  to  apply  soft  cloths  kept  wet  with  sweet 

little  water,  set  it  on  fire  by  hot  coals  or  with  the  aid  of  a  spoonful  of 
alcohol,  or  by  a  long  fuse  set  on  train  as  the  last  opening  to  the  room  is 
closed.  Allow  the  apartment  to  remain  sealed  for  twenty -four  hours. 
Great  care  should  be  taken  not  to  inhale  the  poisonous  fumes  in  firing  the 
sulphur.  After  the  fumigation,  allow  free  currents  of  air  to  pass  through 
the  apartment ;  expose  all  movable  articles  for  as  long  time  as  may  be  to 
the  sun  and  the  wind  out-of-doors;  beat  and  shake  the  carpets,  hangings, 
pillows,  etc. 

The  disinfectants  and  the  instructions  for  using  them,  as  given  above, 
are  mainly  those  recommended  by  the  National  Board  of  Health. 

*  It  is  a  great  mistake  to  suppose  that  salves  will  "  draw  out  the  fire  " 
of  a  burn,  or  heal  a  bruise  or  cut.  The  vital  force  must  unite  the  divided 
tissue  by  the  deposit  of  material  and  the  formation  of  new  cells. 


258  WHATTODO  [239,240. 

oil,  or  with  tepid  water  which  contains  all  the  "cooking  soda" 
that  it  will  dissolve.  Afterward  dress  the  wound  with  carbolic 
acid  salve.  Wrap  a  dry  bandage  upon  the  outside.  Then  remove 
the  patient  to  a  bed  and  cover  warmly.*  Apply  cool  water  to 
a  small  burn  till  the  smart  ceases,  and  then  cover  with  oint- 
ment. Do  not  remove  the  dressings  until  they  become  stiff  and 
irritating ;  then  take  them  from  a  part  at  a  time ;  dress  and 
cover  again  quickly. 

Cuts,  Wounds,  etc.— The  method  of  stopping  the  bleeding 
has  been  described  on  page  128.  If  an  artery  is  severed,  a  phy- 
sician should  be  called  at  once.  If  the  bleeding  is  not  profuse, 
apply  cold  water  until  it  ceases,  dry  the  skin,  draw  the  edges  of 
the  wound  together,  and  secure  them  by  strips  of  adhesive  plas- 
ter. Protect  with  an  outer  bandage.  This  dressing  should 
remain  for  several  days.  In  the  meantime  wet  it  frequently 
with  cool  water  to  subdue  inflammation.  When  suppuration  be- 
gins, wash  occasionally  with  tepid  water  and  Castile  soap. 

Dr.  Woodbridge,  of  New  York,  in  a  recent  address,  gave  the 
following  directions  as  to  "  What  to  do  in  case  of  a  sudden 
wound  when  the  surgeon  is  not  at  hand."  "An  experienced 
person  would  naturally  close  the  lips  of  the  wound  as  quickly 
as  possible,  and  apply  a  bandage.  If  the  wound  is  bleeding 
freely,  but  no  artery  is  spouting  blood,  the  first  thing  to  be  done 
is  to  wash  it  with  water  at  an  ordinary  temperature.  To  every 
pint  of  water  add  either  five  grains  of  corrosive  sublimate,  or 
two  and  a  half  tea-spoonfuls  of  carbolic  acid.  If  the  acid  is  used, 
add  two  table-spoonfuls  of  glycerine,  to  prevent  its  irritating  the 
wound.  If  there  is  neither  of  these  articles  in  the  house,  add 
four  table-spoonfuls  of  borax  to  the  water.  Wash  the  wound, 
close  it,  and  apply  a  compress  of  a  folded  square  of  cotton  or 
linen.  Wet  it  in  the  solution  used  for  washing  the  wound  and 

*  In  case  of  a  large  burn,  lose  no  delay  in  "bringing  a  physician.  If  a 
burn  be  near  a  joint  or  on  the  face,  even  if  small,  let  a  doctor  see  it,  and 
do  not  be  in  any  hurry  about  having  it  healed.  Remember  that  with  all 
the  care  and  skill  which  can  be  used,  contractions  will  sometimes  take 
place.  The  danger  to  life  from  a  burn  or  scald  is  not  in  proportion  to  its 
severity,  but  to  its  extent— that  is,  a  small  part,  such  as  a  hand  or  a  foot, 
may  be  burned  so  deeply  as  to  cripple  it  for  life,  and  yet  not  much  endan- 
ger the  general  health ;  but  a  slight  amount  of  burning,  a  mere  scorching, 
over  two  thirds  of  the  body,  may  prove  fatal.— HOPE. 


240.]  TILL     THE     DOCTOR     COMES.  259 

bandage  quickly  and  firmly.  If  the  bleeding  is  profuse,  a  sponge 
dipped  in  very  hot  water  and  wrung  out  in  a  dry  cloth  should 
be  applied  as  quickly  as  possible.  If  this  is  not  available,  use 
ice,  or  cloths  wrung  out  in  ice  water.  If  a  large  vein  or  artery 
is  spouting,  it  must  be  stopped  at  once  by  compression.  This 
may  be  done  by  a  rubber  tube  wound  around  the  arm  tightly 
above  the  elbow  or  above  the  knee,  where  the  pulse  is  felt  to 
beat ;  or  an  improvised  '  tourniquet '  may  be  used.  A  hard 
apple  or  a  stone  is  placed  in  a  folded  handkerchief,  and  rolled 
firmly  in  place.  This  bandage  is  applied  so  that  the  hard  ob- 
ject rests  on  the  point  where  the  artery  beats,  and  is  then  tied 
loosely  around  the  arm.  A  stick  is  thrust  through  the  loose 
bandage  and  turned  till  the  flow  of  blood  ceases." 

Bleeding  from  the  Nose  is  rarely  dangerous,  and  often 
beneficial.  When  it  becomes  necessary  to  stop  it,  sit  upright 
and  compress  the  nostrils  between  the  thumb  and  forefinger,  or 
with  the  thumb  press  upward  upon  the  upper  lip.  A  piece  of 
ice,  a  snow-ball,  or  a  compress  wet  with  cold  water  may  be 
applied  to  the  back  of  the  neck. 

A  Sprain*  is  often  more  painful  and  dangerous  than  a 
dislocation.  Wrap  the  injured  part  in  flannels  wrung  out  of 
hot  water,  and  cover  with  a  dry  bandage,  or,  better,  with 
oiled  silk.  Liniments  and  stimulating  applications  are  inju- 
rious in  the  first  stages,  but  useful  when  the  inflammation  is 
subdued.  Do  not  let  the  limb  hang  down;  keep  the  joint  still. 
Without  attention  to  these  points,  no  remedies  are  likely  to 
be  of  much  service.  A  sprained  limb  must  be  kept  quiet,  even 
after  all  pain  has  ceased.  If  used  too  soon,  dangerous  conse- 
quences may  ensue.  Many  instances  have  been  known  in 
which,  from  premature  use  of  an  injured  limb,  the  inflamma- 
tion has  been  renewed  and  made  chronic,  the  bones  at  the 
joint  have  become  permanently  diseased,  and  amputation  has 
been  necessitated. 

*  "A  sprain,"  says  Dr.  Hope,  in  that  admirable  little  book  entitled 
Till  the  Doctor  comes  and  How  to  help  Him,  "  is  a  very  painful  and  very  serious 
thing.  When  you  consider  that  from  the  tips  of  the  fingers  to  the  wrist,  or 
from  the  ends  of  the  toes  to  the  leg,  there  are  not  less  than  thirty  separate 
bones,  all  tied  together  with  straps,  cords,  and  elastic  bands,  and  about 
twenty  hinges,  all  to  be  kept  in  good  working  order,,  you  will  not  wonder 
at  sprains  being  frequent  and  sometimes  serious.1' 


260  WHATTODO  [240. 

Diarrhea,  Cholera  Morbus,  etc.,  are  often  caused  by  eat- 
ing indigestible  or  tainted  food,  such  as  unripe  or  decaying  fruit, 
or  stale  vegetables ;  or  by  drinking  impure  water  or  poisoned 
milk  (see  p.  321).  Sometimes  the  disturbance  may  be  traced  to 
a  checking  of  the  perspiration ;  but  more  frequently  to  peculiar 
conditions  of  the  atmosphere,  especially  in  large  cities.  Such 
diseases  are  most  prevalent  in  humid  weather,  when  the  days 
are  hot  and  the  nights  cold  and  moist.  Especial  attention  should 
at  such  times  be  paid  to  the  diet.  If  an  attack  comes  on,  ascer- 
tain, if  possible,  its  cause.  You  can  thereby  aid  your  physician, 
and,  if  the  cause  be  removable,  can  protect  the  rest  of  the  house- 
hold. If  the  limbs  are  cold,  take  a  hot  bath,  followed  by  a 
thorough  rubbing.  Then  go  to  bed  and  lie  quietly  on  the  back. 
In  ordinary  cases,  rest  is  better  than  medicine.  If  there  be  pain, 
have  flannels  wrung  out  of  hot  water  applied  to  the  abdomen.* 
A  mustard  poultice  will  serve  the  same  purpose  if  more  con- 
venient. Eat  no  fruit,  vegetables,  pastry,  or  pork.  Use  water 
sparingly.  If  much  thirst  exist,  give  small  pieces  of  ice,  or 
limited  quantities  of  cold  tea  or  toast-water.  Take  particular 
pains  with  the  diet  for  some  days  after  the  bowel-irritation  has 
ceased. 

Croup. — There  are  two  kinds  of  cioup  —  true  and  false. 
True  croup  comes  on  gradually,  and  is  less  likely  to  excite  alarm 
than  false  croup,  which  comes  on  suddenly.  True  croup  is  at- 
tended with  fever  and  false  membrane  in  the  throat ;  false  croup 
is  not  attended  with  fever  or  false  membrane.  True  croup  i^ 
almost  always  fatal  in  four  or  five  days ;  false  croup  recovers, 
but  is  liable  to  come  on  again.  The  great  majority  of  cases  of 
the  so-called  croup  are  simply  cases  of  spasm  of.  the  glottis. 
"Croupy  children"  are  those  who  are  liable  to  these  attacks  of 
false  croup,  which  are  most  frequent  during  the  period  of  teeth- 
ing.—DR.  GEO.  M.  BEARD.  Croup  occurs  commonly  in  children 
between  the  ages  of  two  and  seven  years.  At  this  period,  if  a 
child  has  a  hollow  cough,  with  more  or  less  fever,  flushed  face, 
red  watery  eyes,  and  especially  if  it  have  a  hoarse  voice,  and 

*  If  it  be  difficult  to  manage  the  foments,  lay  a  hot  plate  over  the  flan- 
nels and  cover  with  some  protection.  By  having  a  change  of  hot  plates, 
the  foments  can  be  kept  at  a  uniform  high  temperature.  This  plan  will 
be  found  useful  in  all  cases  where  foments  are  needed. 


240,241.]  TILL    THE     DOCTOR     COMES.  261 

show  signs  of  uneasiness  about  the  throat,  send  at  once  for  a  doc- 
tor. Induce  mild  vomiting  by  doses  of  syrup  of  ipecac.  Put  the 
feet  in  a  hot  mustard  and  water  bath.  Apply  hot  fomentations, 
rapidly  renewed,  to  the  chest  and  throat.  A  "croupy"  child 
should  be  carefully  shielded  from  all  physical  excitation,  sudden 
waking  from  sleep,  and  any  punishment  that  tends  to  awaken 
intense  fear  or  terror.  Irritation  of  the  air-passages  through 
faulty  swallowing  in  drinking  hastily,  should  be  guarded  against. 
Good  pure  air,  warm  clothing,  and  a  nourishing  diet  are  indis- 
pensable. 

Common  Sore  Throat.— Wrap  the  neck  in  a  wet  bandage, 
and  cover  with  flannel  or  a  clean  woolen  stocking.  Gargle  the 
throat  frequently  with  a  solution  of  a  tea-spoonful  of  salt  in  a 
pint  of  water,  or  thirty  grains  of  chlorate  of  potash  in  a  wine- 
glass of  water. 

Fits,  Apoplexy,  Epilepsy,  etc.— These  call  for  immediate 
action  and  prompt  medical  attendance.  Children  who  are 
teething,  or  troubled  with  intestinal  worms,  or  from  various 
causes,  are  sometimes  suddenly  seized  with  convulsions.  Apply 
cloths  wet  in  cold  water — or,  better  still,  ice  wrapped  in  oiled 
silk — to  'the  head,  and  especially  to  the  back  of  the  neck,  taking 
care,  however,  that  the  ice  or  wet  cloths  do  not  remain  too 
long.  Apply  mustard  plasters  to  the  stomach  and  legs.  A  full 
hot  bath  is  excellent  if  the  cold  applications  fail.  Endeavor  to 
induce  vomiting.  Seek  to  determine  the  cause,  and  consult  with 
your  physician  for  further  guidance. 

Apoplexy  may  be  distinguished  from  a  fainting  fit  by  the 
red  face,  hot  skin,  and  labored  breathing ;  whereas,  in  a  faint, 
the  face  and  lips  lose  color,  and  the  skin  becomes  cold.  In 
many  cases,  death  follows  so  quickly  upon  an  apoplectic  seizure, 
that  little  effectual  service  can  be  given.  Call  the  nearest  physi- 
cian, loosen  the  clothing,  and  raise  the  head  and  shoulders, 
taking  care  not  to  bend  the  head  forward  on  the  neck.  Keep 
the  head  cool.  Do  not  move  the  patient  unnecessarily. 

In  a  common  fainting  fit,  give  the  patient  as  much  air  as 
possible.  Lay  him  flat  upon  the  floor  or  ground,  and  keep  the 
crowd  away. 

All  that  can  be  done  in  a  fit  of  epilepsy  is  to  prevent  the 
patient  from  in juring,  himself ;  especially  put  something  in  his 


262  WHAT     TO     DO  [241. 

mouth  to  keep  him  from  biting  his  tongue.  A  cork,  a  piece  of 
India  rubber,  or  even  a  tightly-rolled  handkerchief,  placed  be- 
tween the  teeth  will  answer  this  purpose.  Give  the  sufferer 
fresh  air;  loosen  his  clothing,  and  place  him  in  a  comfortable 
position.  Epilepsy  may  be  due  to  various  causes, — improper 
diet,  overexcitement,  etc.  Consult  with  a  physician,  and  study 
to  avoid  the  occasion. 

Concussion  of  the  Brain  generally  arises  from  some  con- 
tusion of  the  head,  from  violent  blows,  or  from  a  shock  received 
by  the  whole  body  in  consequence  of  falling  from  a  height.  In 
any  case  of  injury  to  the  head  where  insensibility  ensues,  a  doc- 
tor should  be  called  at  once.  Remove  the  patient  to  a  quiet 
room ;  loosen  his  clothing ;  strive  to  restore  circulation  by  gentle 
friction,  using  the  hand  or  a  cloth  for  this  purpose ;  apply  cold 
water  to  the  head,  and,  if  the  patient's  body  be  cold  and  his 
skin  clammy,  put  hot  bottles  at  his  feet.  Ammonia  may  be  cau- 
tiously held  to  the  nose.  Beyond  this,  it  is  not  safe  for  a  non- 
professional  to  go,  in  case  of  a  severe  injury  to  the  head.  Con- 
cussion is  more  or  less  serious,  according  to  the  injury  which 
the  brain  has  sustained  ;  but  even  in  slight  cases,  when  a  tem- 
porary dizziness  appears  to  be  the  only  result,  careful  treatment 
should  be  observed  both  at  the  time  of  the  injury  and  after- 
ward. Cases  of  head-injury  are  often*  more  grave  in  their  con- 
sequences than  in  their  immediate  symptoms.  Sometimes  the 
patient  appears  to  be  getting  better  when  really  he  is  worse. 
Rest  and  quiet  should  be  observed  for  several  weeks  after  an 
accident  which  has  in  any  way  affected  the  brain. 

Toothache  and  Earache. — Insert  in  the  hollow  tooth  cot- 
ton wet  with  laudanum,  spirits  of  camphor,  or  chloroform. 
When  the  nerve  is  exposed,  wet  it  with  creosote  or  carbolic 
acid.  Hot  cloths  or  a  hot  brick  wrapped  in  cloth  and  held  to 
the  face  will  often  relieve  the  toothache.  In  a  similar  manner 
treat  the  ear,  wetting  the  cloth  in  hot  water,  and  letting  the 
vapor  pass  into  the  ear. 

Choking.— Ordinarily  a  smart  blow  between  the  shoulders, 
causing  a  compression  of  the  chest  and  a  sudden  expulsion  of 
the  air  from  the  lungs,  will  throw  out  the  offending  substance. 
If  the  person  can  swallow,  and  the  object  be  small,  give  plenty 
pf  bread  or  potato,  and  water  to  wash  it  down.  Press  upon 


241,242.]  TILL     THE     DOCTOR     COMES.  263 

the  tongue  with  a  spoon,  when,  perhaps,  you  may  see  the  ob- 
ject, and  draw  it  out  with  your  thumb  and  finger,  or  a  blunt 
pair  of  scissors.  If  neither  of  these  remedies  avail,  give  an 
emetic  of  syrup  of  ipecac  or  mustard  and  warm  water. 

Frost  Bites  are  frequently  so  sudden  that  one  is  not  aware 
when  they  occur.  In  Canada  it  is  not  uncommon  for  persons 
meeting  in  the  street  to  say,  ' '  Mind,  sir,  your  nose  looks  whit- 
ish." The  blood  cools  and  runs  slowly,  and  the  blood-vessels 
become  choked  and  swollen.  Keep  from  the  heat.  Rub  the 
part  quickly  with  snow,  if  necessary  for  hours,  till  the  natural 
color  is  restored.  If  one  is  benumbed  with  cold,  take  him  into 
a  cold  room,  remove  the  wet  clothes,  rub  the  body  dry,  cover 
with  blankets,  and  give  a  little  warm  tea  or  other  suitable 
drink.  On  recovering,  let  him  be  brought  to  a  fire  gradually.* 

Fevers,  and  many  acute  diseases,  are  often  preceded  by  a 
loss  of  appetite,  headache,  shivering,  "pains  in  the  bones,"  in- 
disposition to  work,  etc.  In  such  cases,  sponge  with  tepid 
water,  and  rub  the  body  till  all  aglow.  Go  to  bed,  place  hot 
bricks  to  the  feet,  take  nothing  but  a  little  gruel  or  beef  tea, 
and  drink  moderately  of  warm,  cream-of-tartar  water.  If  you 
do  not  feel  better  the  next  morning,  call  a  physician.  If  that 
be  impossible,  take  a  dose  of  castor-oil  or  Epsom  salt. 

Sun-stroke  is  a  sudden  prostration  caused  by  intense  heat. 
The  same  effect  is  produced  by  the  burning  rays  of  the  sun  and 
the  fierce  fire  of  a  furnace.  When  a  person  falls  under  such 
circumstances,  place  your  hand  on  his  chest.  If  the  skin  be 
cool  and  moist,  it  is  not  a  sun-stroke ;  but  if  it  be  dry  and 
"biting  hot,"  there  can  be  no  mistake.  Time  is  now  precious. 
At  once  carry  the  sufferer  to  the  nearest  pump  or  hydrant,  and 
dash  cold  water  on  the  head  and  chest  until  consciousness  is 
restored. — DR.  H.  C.  WOOD. 

To  prevent  sun-stroke,  wear  a  porous  hat,  and  in  the  top  of 
it  place  a  wet  handkerchief ;  also  drink  freely  of  water,  not  ice- 
cold,  to  induce  abundant  perspiration. 

*  If  you  are  caught  in  a  snow-storm,  look  for  a  snow-bank  in  the  lee 
of  a  hill,  or  a  wood  out  of  the  wind,  or  a  hollow  in  the  plain  filled  with 
snow.  Scrape  out  a  hole  big  enough  to  creep  into,  and  the  drifting  snow 
will  keep  you  warm.  Men  and  animals  have  been  preserved  after  days  of 
such  imprisonment.  Remember  that  if  you  give  way  to  sleep  in  the  open 
field,  you  will  never  awake. 


264  WHATTODO  [242. 

Asphyxia,  or  apparent  death,  whether  produced  by  drown 
ing,    suffocation,    bad    air,    or   coal    gas,    requires    very    similar 
treatment.     Send  immediately  for  blankets,  dry  clothing,  and  a 
physician.      Treat  the  sufferer  upon  the  spot,  if  the  weather  be 
not  too  unfavorable. 

1.  Loosen  the  clothing  about  the  neck  and  chest. 

2.  Turn  the  patient  on  his  face,  open  the  mouth,  draw  out 
the  tongue,   and    cleanse   the    nostrils,   so    as    to    clear  the  air- 
passages. 

3.  Place  the    patient    on    his    back,   grasp   his   arms  firmly 
above  the  elbows,  and  pull  them  gently  upward  until  they  meet 
over  the  head,  in  order  to  draw  air  into  the  lungs.     Then  bring 
the  arms  back  by  the  side,  to  expel  the  air.     Repeat  the  process 
about  fifteen  times   per  minute.     Alternate  pressure  upon  the 
chest,  and  blowing  air  into  the  mouth  through  a  quill  or  with 
a  pair  of  bellows,  may  aid   your  efforts.      Excite    the    nostrils 
with  snuff  or  smelling  salts,  or  by  passing  hartshorn  under  the 
nose.     Do  not  cease  effort  while  there  is  hope.      Life  has   been 
restored  after  five  hours  of  suspended  animation.* 

4.  When  respiration  is  established,  wrap  the  patient  in  dry, 
warm  clothes,  and  rub  the  limbs  under  the  blankets  or  over  the 
dry  clothing  energetically  toward  the  heart.     Apply  heated  flan- 
nels, bottles  of  hot  water,  etc.,  to  tthe  limbs,  and  mustard  plas- 
ters f  to  the  chest. 

Foreign  Bodies  in  the  Ear. — Insects  may  be  killed  by 
dropping  a  little  sweet-oil  into  the  ear.  Beans,  peas,  etc.,  may 
generally  be  removed  by  so  holding  the  head  that  the  affected 
ear  will  be  toward  the  ground,  and  then  cautiously  syringing 
tepid  water  into  it  from  below.  Do  not  use  much  force  lest  the 

*  Another  simple  method  of  artificial  respiration  is  described  in  the 
British  Medical  Journal.  The  body  of  the  patient  is  laid  on  the  back,  with 
clothes  loosened,  and  the  mouth  and  nose  wiped;  two  by-standers  pass 
their  right  hands  under  the  body  at  the  level  of  the  waist,  and  grasp  each 
other's  hand,  then  raise  the  body  until  the  tips  of  the  fingers  and  the  toes 
of  the  subject  alone  touch  the  ground ;  count  fifteen  rapidly ;  then  lower 
the  body  flat  to  the  ground,  and  press  the  elbows  to  the  side  hard ;  count 
fifteen  again ;  then  raise  the  body  again  for  the  same  length  of  time ;  and 
so  on,  alternately  raising  and  lowering.  The  head,  arms,  and  legs  are  to  be 
allowed  to  dangle  down  freely  when  the  body  is  raised. 

t  The  best  mustard  poultice  is  the  paper  plaster  now  sold  by  every 
druggist.  It  is  always  ready,  and  can  be  carried  by  a  traveler.  It  has  only 
to  be  dipped  in  water,  and  applied  at  once. 


242,343.]  TILL     THE     DOCTOE     COMES.  265 

tympanum  be  injured.  If  this  fail,  dry  the  ear,  stick  the  end 
of  a  little  linen  swab  into  thick  glue,  let  the  patient  lie  on  one 
side,  put  this  into  the  ear  until  it  touches  the  substance,  keep 
it  there  three  quarters  of  an  hour  while  it  hardens,  and  then 
draw  them  all  out  together.  Be  careful  that  the  glue  does  not 
touch  the  skin  at  any  point,  and  that  you  are  at  work  upon 
the  right  ear.  Children  often  deceive  one  as  to  the  ear  which  is 
affected. 

Foreign  Bodies  in  the  Nose,  such  as  beans,  cherry-pits, 
etc.,  may  frequently  be  removed  by  closing  the  opposite  nostril, 
and  then  blowing  into  the  child's  mouth  forcibly.  The  air,  un- 
able to  escape  except  through  the  affected  nostril,  will  sweep 
the  obstruction  before  it. 


ANTIDOTES    TO     POISONS. 

Acids :  Nitric  (aqua  fortis),  hydrochloric  (muriatic),  sulphuric 
(oil  of  vitriol),  oxalic,  etc. — Drink  a  little  water  to  weaken  the 
acid,  or,  still  better,  take  strong  soap-suds.  Stir  some  magnesia 
in  water,  and  drink  freely.  If  the  magnesia  be  not  at  hand,  use 
chalk,  soda,  lime,  whiting,  soap,  or  even  knock  a  piece  of  plaster 
from  the  wall,  and  scraping  off  the  white  outside  coat  pound  it 
fine,  mix  with  milk  or  water,  and  drink  at  once.  Follow  with 
warm  water,  or  flax-seed  tea. 

Alkalies:  Potash,  soda,  lye,  ammonia  (hartshorn). —  Drink 
weak  vinegar  or  lemon  juice.  Follow  with  castor  or  linseed  oil, 
or  thick  cream. 

Antimony :  Antimonial  Wine,  tartar  emetic,  etc.  —  Drink 
strong,  green  tea,  and  in  the  meantime  chew  the  dry  leaves. 
The  direct  antidote  is  a  solution  of  nut-gall  or  Oak-bark. 

Arsenic :  Cobalt,  Scheele's  green,  fly-powder,  ratsbane,  etc. — 
Give  plenty  of  milk,  whites  of  eggs,  or  induce  vomiting  by  mustard 
and  warm  water ;  *  or  even  soap-suds. 

Bite  of  a  Snake  or  a  Mad  Dog.— Tie  a  bandage  above  the 
wound,  if  on  a  limb.  Wash  the  bite  thoroughly,  and,  if  pos- 
sible, let  the  person  suck  it  strongly.  Rub  some  lunar  caustic 

*  See  that  the  mustard  is  well  mixed  with  the  water,  in  the  proportion 
of  about  half  an  ounce  of  the  former  to  a  pint  of  the  latter. 


266  ANTIDOTES     TO     POISONS.  [244,245. 

or  potash  in  the  wound,  or  heat  the  point  of  a  small  poker  or 
a  steel-sharpener  white  hot,  and  press  it  into  the  bite  for  a  mo- 
ment. It  will  scarcely  cause  pain,  and  will  be  effectual  in  ar- 
resting the  'absorption  of  the  poison,  unless  a  vein  has  been 
struck. 

Copper:  Sulphate  of  copper  (blue  vitriol),  acetate  of  copper 
(verdigris). — Take  whites  of  eggs  or  soda.  Use  milk  freely. 

Laudanum :  Opium,  paregoric,  soothing  cordial,  soothing  syr- 
up, etc. — Give  an  emetic  at  once  of  syrup  of  ipecac,  or  mustard 
and  warm  water,  etc.  After  vomiting,  use  strong  coffee  freely. 
Keep  tlie  patient  awake  by  pinching,  pulling  the  hair,  walking 
about,  dashing  water  in  the  face,  and  any  expedient  possible. 

Lead :  White  lead,  acetate  of  lead  (sugar  of  lead),  red  lead. — ' 
Give  an  emetic  of  syrup  of  ipecac,  or  mustard  and  warm  water, 
or  salt  and  water.  Follow  with  a  dose  of  Epsom  salt. 

Matches:  Phosphorus.  —  Give  magnesia,  chalk,  whiting,  or 
even  flour  in  water,  and  follow  with  mucilaginous  drinks. 

Mercury :  Calomel,  chloride  of  mercury  (corrosive  sublimate, 
bug  poison),  red  precipitate. — Drink  milk  copiously.  Take  the 
whites  of  eggs,  or  stir  flour  in  water,  and  use  freely. 

Nitrate  of  Silver  (lunar  caustic). — Give  salt  and.  water,  and 
follow  with  castor-oil. 

Nitrate  of  Potash  (salpeter,  niter). — Give  mustard  and  warm 
water,  or  syrup  of  ipecac.  Follow  with  flour  and  water,  and 
cream  or  sweet  oil. 

Prussic  Acid  (oil  of  bitter  almonds),  cyanide  of  potassium. 
— Take  a  tea-spoonful  of  hartshorn  in  a  pint  of  water.  Apply 
smelling  salts  to  the  nose,  and  dash  cold  water  in  the  face. 

Sting  of  an  Insect. — Apply  a  little  hartshorn  or  spirits  of 
camphor,  or  soda  moistened  with  water,  or  a  paste  of  clean 
earth  and  saliva. 

Sulphate  of  Iron  (green  vitriol). — Give  syrup  of  ipecac,  or 
mustard  and  warm  water,  or  any  convenient  emetic ;  then  mag- 
nesia and  water. 


X. 

SELECTED  READINGS 

TO  ILLUSTRATE  AND  SUPPLEMENT  THE  TEXT. 


Arranged  in  order  of  the  subjects  to  which  they  refer. 


"READ   not   to   contradict   and   confute,  nor   to   believe   and   take   for 
granted,  nor  to  find  talk  and  discourse,  but  to  weigh  and  consider." 

BACON. 


"He  who  learns  the  rules  of  wisdom  without  conforming  to  them  in 
his  life,  is  like  a  man  who  labored  in  his  fields  but  did  not  sow." 

SAADI. 


SELECTED   READINGS. 


The  figures  indicate  the  pages  in  the  text  upon  which  the  cor- 
responding  subjects   will   be  found. 


THE    SKELETON. 

Man,  as  Compared  with  other  Vertebrate  Animals  (p.  3). 

— Man,  the  lord  of  the  animal  kingdom,  is  constructed  after 
the  same  type  as  the  cat  that  purrs  at  his  feet,  the  ox  that  he 
eats,  the  horse  that  bears  his  burden,  the  bird  that  sings  in  his 
cage,  the  snake  that  crawls  across  his  pathway,  the  toad  that 
hides  in  his  garden,  and  the  fish  that  swims  in  his  aquarium. 
All  these  are  but  modifications  of  one  creative  thought,  showing 
how  the  Almighty  Worker  delights  in  repeating  the  same  chord, 
with  infinite  variations.  There  are  marked  physical  peculiarities, 
however,  which  distinguish  man  from  the  other  mammals. 
Thus,  the  position  of  the  spinal  opening  in  the  middle  third  of 
the  base  of  the  skull,  thereby  balancing  the  head  and  admit- 
ting an  upright  posture ;  the  sigmoid  S-curve  of  the  vertebral 
column ;  the  ability  of  opposing  the  well-developed  thumb  to 
the  fingers ;  the  shortened  foot,  the  sole  resting  flat  on  the 
ground  ;  the  size  and  position  of  the  great  toe ;  the  length  of 
the  arms,  reaching  half-way  from  the  hip  to  the  knees ;  the 
relatively  great  development  of  the  brain ;  the  freedom  of  the 
anterior  extremities  from  use  in  locomotion,  and  the  consequent 
erect  and  biped  position.  In  addition,  man  is  the  only  mammal 
that  truly  walks ;  that  is  endowed  with  the  power  of  speech  ; 
and  that  is  cosmopolitan,  readily  adapting  himself  to  extremes 
of  heat  and  cold,  and  making  his  home  in  all  parts  of  the  globe. 
— STEELE'S  Popular  Zoology. 


270 


THE     SKELETON. 


Union  of  Fractures  (p.  8).— In  the  course  of  a  week  after 
a  fracture,  there  is  a  soft  yet  firm  substance,  something  between 
ligament  and  cartilage  in  consistence,  which  surrounds  the 
broken  extremities  of  the  bone,  and  adheres  to  it  above  and 
below.  The  neighboring  muscles  and  tendons  are  closely  at- 

FIG.  68. 


Skeleton  of  Oranff,   Chimpanzee,  and  Man. 

tached  to  its  surface,  and  the  fractured  extremities  of  the  bone, 
lie,  as  it  were,  loose  in  a  cavity  in  the  center,  with  a  small 
quantity  of  vascular  albumen,  resembling  a  semi-transparent 
jelly. 

Here,  then,  is  a  kind  of  splint  which  nature  contrives,  and 
which  is  nearly  completed  within  a  week  from  the  date  of  the 
accident.  We  call  this  new  formation  the  callus.  This  process 
goes  on,  the  surrounding  substance  becoming  thicker  and  of  still 
firmer  consistence.  In  the  course  of  a  few  days  more,  the  thin 


UNION     OF     FRACTURES.  271 

jelly  which  lay  in  contact  with  the  broken  ends  of  the  bone  has 
disappeared,  and  its  place  is  supplied  by  a  callus  continuous 
with  that  which  formed  the  original  capsule.  This  is  the  ter- 
mination of  the  first  stage  of  curative  progress.  The  broken 
ends  of  the  bones  are  now  completely  imbedded  in  a  mass  of 
vascular  organized  substance  or  callus,  something  between  gristle 
and  cartilage  in  consistence  ;  and  as  yet  there  are  no  traces  of 
bony  matter  in  it.  At  this  time,  if  you  remove  the  adventitious 
substance,  you  will  find  the  broken  ends  of  bone  retaining  ex- 
actly their  original  figure  and  presenting  the  same  appearance 
as  immediately  after  the  fracture  took  place. 

At  the  end  of  about  three  weeks,  if  you  make  a  section  of 
the  callus,  minute  specks  of  earthy  matter  are  visible,  deposited 
in  it  here  and  there,  and  at  the  same  time  some  of  the  callus 
appears  to  disappear  on  the  outside,  so  that  the  neighboring 
muscles  and  tendons  no  longer  adhere  to  it.  The  specks  of 
bone  become  larger  and  more  numerous  until  they  extend  into 
each  other ;  and  thus  by  degrees  the  whole  of  the  callus  is  con- 
verted into  bone.  Even  at  this  period,  however,  there  is  not 
absolute  bony  union,  for  although  the  whole  of  the  callus  has 
become  bone,  it  is  not  yet  identified  with  the  old  bone,  and  you 
might  still  pick  it  off  with  a  penknife,  leaving  the  broken  ex- 
tremities not  materially  altered  from  what  they  were  immedi- 
ately after  the  injury.  This  may  be  regarded  as  the  end  of  the 
second  stage  of  the  process  by  which  a  fracture  is  repaired. 
Now  a  third  series  of  changes  begins  to  take  place.  The  broken 
extremities  of  the  bones  become  intimately  united  by  bony  mat- 
ter passing  from  one  to  the  other.  The  mass  of  new  bone  on 
the  outside,  formed  by  the  ossification  of  the  callus,  being  no 
longer  wanted,  is  absorbed ;  by  degrees  the  whole  of  it  disap- 
pears, and  the  bone  is  left  having  the  same  dimensions  which  it 
had  before  the  occurrence  of  the  accident. 

The  process  of  union  is  completed  in  young  persons  sooner 
than  in  those  advanced  in  life ;  in  the  upper  extremities  sooner 
than  in  the  lower ;  and  in  smaller  animals  more  speedily  than 
in  man.  In  human  subjects  a  broken  arm  or  fore-arm  will  be 
healed  in  from  six  to  eight  weeks,  while  a  leg  or  thigh  will  oc- 
cupy nine  or  ten  weeks. — SIR  B.  C.  BRODIE. 

The  Hand  and  the  Foot  (p.  21).— Man  Compared  with  the 


272 


THE     SKELETON. 


FIG.  69. 


a.  Monkey^s  Hand  and  Foot. 

b.  Human  Hand  and  Foot. 


Ape. — The  peculiar  prehensible  power  possessed  by  the  hand  of 
man  is  chiefly  dependent  upon  the  size  and  power  of  the  thumb, 
which  is  more  developed  in  him  than  it  is  in  the  highest  apes. 
The  thumb  of  the  human  hand  can  be  brought  into  exact  oppo- 
sition to  the  extremities  of  all  the 
fingers,  whether  singly  or  in  com- 
bination;  while  in  those  quadru- 
mana  which  most  nearly  approach 
man,  the  thumb  is  so  short,  and 
the  fingers  so  much  elongated,  that 
their  tips  can  scarcely  be  brought 
into  opposition ;  and  the  thumb 
and  the  fingers  are  so  weak  that 
they  can  never  be  opposed  to  each 
other  with  any  degree  of  force. 
Hence,  though  well  suited  to  cling 
round  bodies  of  a  certain  size,  such 
as  the  small  branches  of  trees,  the 

anterior  extremities  of  the  quadrumana  can  neither  seize  very 
minute  objects  with  such  precision  nor  support  large  ones  with 
such  firmness  as  are  essential  to  the  dexterous  performance  of 
a  variety  of  operations  for  which  the  hand  of  man  is  admirably 
adapted. 

The  human  foot  is,  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  whole 
body,  larger,  broader,  and  stronger  than  that  of  any  other 
mammal,  save  the  kangaroo.  The  surface  of  the  astragalus 
(ankle-bone)  which  articulates  with  the  tibia,  looks  almost  ver- 
tically upward,  and  hardly  at  all  inward,  when  the  sole  is  flat 
upon  the  ground ;  and  the  lateral  facets  are  more  nearly  at 
right  angles  to  this  surface  than  in  any  ape.  The  plane  of  the 
foot  is  directed  at  right  angles  to  that  of  the  leg ;  and  its  sole  is 
concave,  so  that  the  weight  of  the  body  falls  on  the  summit  of  an 
arch,  of  which  the  os  calcis  (heel-bone)  and  the  metatarsal  bones 
form  the  two  points  of  support.  This  arched  form  of  the  foot, 
and  the  contact  of  the  whole  plantar  surface  with  the  ground, 
are  particularly  noticeable  in  man,  most  of  the  apes  having  the 
os  calcis  small,  straight,  and  more  or  less  raised  from  the 
ground,  while  they  touch,  when  standing  erect,  with  the  outer 
side  only  of  the  foot.  The  function  of  the  hallux,  or  great  toe, 


THE     HAND     AND     THE     FOOT. 


273 


moreover,    is    strikingly   contrasted   in   man    and   the   ape ;    for, 
while  in  the  latter  it  is  nearly  as  opposable  as  the  thumb,  and 
can   be   used  to  almost  the   same   extent  as   an   instrument  of 
prehension,    it    chiefly    serves   in   the 
former  to  extend  the  basis  of  support,  FIG.  70. 

and  to  advance  the  body  in  progres- 
sion.—DR.  W.  B.  CARPENTER. 
^  The  Natural  Flexibility  of  the 
Toes,  and  How  it  is  Destroyed.— We 
often  admire  the  suppleness  of  the 
fingers  by  means  of  which  we  can 
perform  such  a  variety  of  acts  with 
swiftness  and  delicacy.  Did  it  ever 
occur  to  you  that  the  toes,  which  in 
most  feet  seem  incapable  of  a  free 
and  graceful  motion,  even  when  they 
are  not  stiffened  and  absolutely  de- 
formed by  the  compression  of  the 
modern  shoe,  are  also  provided  by 
Nature  with  a  considerable  degree  of 
flexibility  ?  The  phalanges  of  the  toes, 
though  more  feebly  developed,  have 
really  the  same  movements  among 
themselves  as  those  of  the  fingers, 
and,  in  case  of  necessity,  their  powers 
can  be  strengthened  and  educated  to 
a  surprising  degree.  There  are  well- 
known  instances  of  persons  who,  born 

without  hands,  or  having  lost  them  by  accident,  have  success- 
fully supplied  the  deficiency  by  a  cultivated  use  of  their  feet. 
Some  of  these  have  distinguished  themselves  in  the  world  of  art. 
Who  that  has  been  so  fortunate  as  to  visit  the  Picture-Gallery 
in  Antwerp  on  some  fine  morning  when  the  armless  artist, 
M.  Felu,  was  working  at  his  easel,  can  forget  the  wonderful 
dexterity  with  which  he  wielded  his  brushes,  mixed  the  oils  on 
his  palette,  and  shaded  the  colors  on  his  canvas,  all  with  his 
agile  feet?  The  writer  well  remembers  the  ease  and  grace  with 
which,  at  the  close  of  a  pleasant  interview,  this  cultured  man 
put  the  tip  of  his  foot  into  his  coat-pocket,  drew  out  a  visiting 


The  Leg  In  standing. 


274  THE     SKELETON. 

card,  wrote  his  name  and  address  upon  it,  and  presented  it  to 
her  between  his  toes ! 

Contrast  this  intelligent  adaptation  of  a  delicate  physical 
mechanism  with  the  barbarous  treatment  it  too  commonly  re- 
ceives. The  Chinese  are  at  least  consistent.  They  cripple  and 
distort  the  feet  of  their  high-born  daughters  until  they  crush 
out  all  the  power  and  gracefulness  of  nature  in  the  artificial 
formation  of  what  they  term  a  "golden  lily"  ;  but  they  never 
expect  these  golden-lilied  women  to  make  their  withered  feet 
useful.  With  us,  on  the  contrary,  every  girl  would  like  to  walk 
well,  to  display  in  her  general  movements  something  of  the 
"  poetry  of  motion ";  yet  the  absurd  and  arbitrary  fashion  of 
our  foot-gear  not  only  makes  an  elastic  step  one  of  the  rarest  of 
accomplishments,  but  renders  oftentimes  the  simple  act  of 
walking  a  painful  burden.  The  calluses,  corns,  bunions,  in- 
growing nails,  and  repulsive  deformities  that  are  caused  by  and 
hidden  under  the  narrow-toed,  high-heeled  instruments  of  torture 
we  often  wear  for  fashion's  sake  are  uncomfortable  suggestions 
that  our  practices  are  not  greatly  in  advance  of  those  of  our 
Celestial  sisters.  Dowie,  a  sensible  Scotch  shoemaker,  satirizes 
the  shape  of  a  fashionable  boot  as  suited  only  to  "the  foot  of  a 
goose  with  the  great  toe  in  the  middle,"  The  error  which  may 
have  led  to  the  adoption  of  this'  conventional  shape  appears  to 
lie  in  a  misconception  of  the  natural  formation  of  the  foot,  and 
of  the  relation  of  the  two  feet  to  each  other.  It  is  true,  that 
when  the  toes  are  covered  with  their  soft  parts,  the  second  toe 
appears  a  little  longer  than  the  first,  and  this  appearance,  em- 
phasized and  exaggerated,  is  perhaps  responsible  for  a  practical 
assumption  that  Nature  intended  an  even-sided,  tapering  foot. 
On  the  contrary,  the  natural  foot  gradually  expands  in  breadth 
from  the  instep  to  the  toes  and,  in  the  skeleton  itself,  the  great 
toe  is  the  longest. 

"There  is  no  law  of  beauty,"  says  Dr.  Ellis,  "which  makes 
it  necessary  to  reduce  the  foot  to  even-sided  symmetry.  An 
architect  required  to  provide  more  space  on  one  than  on  the 
other  side  of  a  building  would  not  seek  to  conceal  or  even  to 
minimize  the  difference  ;  he  would  seek  rather  to  accentuate  it, 
and  give  the  two  sides  of  the  structure  distinctive  features  .... 
Moreover,  the  sense  of  symmetry  is,  or  ought  to  be,  satisfied  by 


ATTACHMENT     OF,  THE     MUSCLES.  275 

the  exact  correspondence  of  the  two  feet,  which,  taken  jointly, 
may  be  described  as  the  two  halves  of  an  unequally  expanded 
dome."— E.  B.  S. 

THE    MUSCLES. 

Attachment  of  the  Muscles  to  the  Bones  (p.  30).— One 
of  the  two  bones  to  which  a  muscle  is  attached  is  usually  less 
mobile  than  the  other,  so  that  when  the  muscle  shortens,  the 
latter  is  drawn  down  against  the  former.  In  such  a  case,  the 
point  of  attachment  of  the  muscle  to  the  less  mobile  bone  is 
called  its  origin,  while  the  point  to  which  it  is  fixed  on  the  more 
mobile  bone  is  called  its  attachment.  ...  A  muscle  is  not 
always  extended  between  two  contiguous  bones.  Occasionally, 
passing  over  one  bone  it  attaches  itself  to  the  next.  This  is  the 
case  with  several  muscles  which,  originating  from  the  pelvic 
bone,  pass  across  the  upper  thigh-bone,  and  attach  themselves 
to  the  lower  thigh-bone.  In  such  cases  the  muscle  is  capable  of 
two  different  movements  :  it  can  either  stretch  the  knee,  pre- 
viously bent,  so  that  the  upper  and  the  lower  thigh-bones  are 
in  a  straight  line ;  or  it  can  raise  the  whole  extended  leg  yet 
higher,  and  bring  it  nearer  to  the  pelvis.  But  the  points  of 
origin  and  of  attachment  of  muscles  may  exchange  offices. 
When  both  legs  stand  firmly  on  the  ground,  the  above-mentioned 
muscles  are  unable  to  raise  the  thigh ;  instead,  on  shortening, 
they  draw  down  the  pelvis,  which  now  presents  the  more 
mobile  point,  and  thus  bend  forward  the  whole  upper  part  of 
the  body. 

One  important  consequence  of  the  attachment  of  the  muscles 
to  the  bones  is  the  extension  thus  effected.  If  the  limb  of  a 
dead  body  is  placed  in  the  position  which  it  ordinarily  occupied 
during  life,  and  if  one  end  of  a  muscle  is  then  separated  from 
its  point  of  attachment,  it  draws  itself  back,  and  becomes 
shorter.  The  same  thing  happens  during  life,  as  is  observable 
in  the  operation  of  cutting  the  tendons,  as  practiced  by  surgeons 
to  cure  curvatures.  The  result  being  the  same  during  life  and 
after  death,  this  phenomenon  is  evidently  due  to  the  action  of 
elasticity.  It  thus  appears  that  the  muscles  are  stretched  by 
reason  of  their  attachment  to  the  skeleton,  and  that,  on  account 


276  THE     MUSCLES. 

of  their  elasticity,  they  are  continually  striving  to  shorten. 
Now,  when  several  muscles  are  attached  to  one  bone  in  such  a 
way  that  they  pull  in  opposite  directions,  the  bone  must  assume 
a  position  in  which  the  tension  of  all  the  muscles  is  balanced, 
and  all  these  tensions  must  combine  to  press  together  the 
socketed  parts  with  a  certain  force,  thus  evidently  contributing 
to  the  strength  of  the  socket  connection.  .  .  .  This  balanced 
position  of  all  the  limbs,  which  thus  depends  on  the  elasticity 
of  the  muscles,  may  be  observed  during  sleep,  for  then  all 
active  muscular  action  ceases.  It  will  be  observed  that  the 
limbs  are  then  generally  slightly  bent,  so  that  they  form  very 
obtuse  angles  to  each  other. 

Not  all  muscles  are,  however,  extended  between  bones.  The 
tendons  of  some  pass  into  soft  structures,  such  as  the  muscles 
of  the  face.  In  this  case,  also,  the  different  muscles  exercise  a 
mutual  power  of  extension,  though  it  is  but  slight,  and  they 
thus  effect  a  definite  balanced  position  of  the  soft  parts,  as  may 
be  observed  in  the  position  of  the  mouth-opening  in  the  face. — 
ROSENTHAL,  Muscles  and  Nerves. 

\/  Muscular  Fibers  (p.  31). — The  anatomical  composition  of 
flesh  is  very  similar  in  every  kind  of  creature,  whether  it  be  the 
muscle  of  the  ox  or  of  the  fly;  that  is  to  say,  there  are  certain 
tubes  which  are  filled  with  minute  parts  or  elements,  and  the 
adhesion  of  the  tubes  together  makes  up  the  substance  of  the 
flesh.  These  tubes  may  be  represented  grossly  by  imagining  the 
finger  of  a  glove,  to  be  called  the  sarcolemma,  or  muscle-fiber 
pouch,  and  this  to  be  so  small  as  not  to  be  apparent  to  the 
naked  eye,  but  filled  with  nuclei  and  the  juices  peculiar  to 
each  animal.  Hundreds  of  such  fingers  attached  together 
would  represent  a  bundle  of  muscular  fibers.  The  tubes  are 
of  fine  tissue,  but  are  tolerably  permanent;  whilst  the  con- 
tents are  in  direct  communication  with  the  circulating  blood 
and  pursue  an  incessant  course  of  chemical  change  and  physical 
renewal. — EDWARD  SMITH,  Foods. 

The  Smooth  Muscle-fibers  consist  of  long  spindle-shaped 
cells,  the  ends  of  which  are  frequently  spirally  twisted,  and 
in  the  center  of  which  exists  a  long  rod-shaped  kernel  or 
nucleus.  Unlike  striated  muscle,  they  do  not  form  separate 
muscular  masses,  but  occur  scattered,  or  arranged  in  more  or 


THE     SMOOTH     MUSCLE-FIBERS.  277 

less  dense  layers  or  strata,  in  almost  all  organs.*  Arranged  in 
regular  order,  they  very  frequently  form  widely  extending  mem- 
branes, especially  in  such  tube-shaped  structures  as  the  blood- 
vessels, the  intestine,  etc.,  the  walls  of  which  are  composed  of 
these  smooth  muscle-fibers.  In  such  cases  they  are  usually  ar- 
ranged in  two  layers,  one  of  which  consists  of  ring-shaped 

FIG.  71. 


Smooth  Muscle-fibers  (300  times  enlarged). 


fibers  surrounding  the  tube,  while  the  other  consists  of  fibers 
arranged  parallel  to  the  tube.  When,  therefore,  these  muscle- 
fibers  contract,  they  are  able  both  to  reduce  the  circumference 
and  to  shorten  the  length  of  the  walls  of  the  tube  in  which  they 
occur.  This  is  of  great  importance  in  the  case  of  the  smaller 
arteries,  in  which  the  smooth  muscle-fibers,  arranged  in  the 
form  of  a  ring,  are  able  greatly  to  contract,  or  even  entirely  to 
close  the  vessels,  thus  regulating  the  current  of  blood  through 

*  An  instance  of  a  considerable  accumulation  of  smooth  muscle-fibers 
is  afforded  by  the  muscle-pouch  of  birds,  which,  with  the  exception  of  the 
outer  and  inner  skin  coverings,  consists  solely  of  these  fibers  collected  in 
extensive  layers. 


278  THE     MUSCLES. 

the  capillaries.  In  other  cases,  as  in  the  intestine,  they  serve  to 
set  the  contents  of  the  tubes  in  motion.  In  the  latter  cases  the 
contraction  does  not  take  place  simultaneously  throughout  the 
length  of  the  tube ;  but,  commencing  at  one  point,  it  continually 
propagates  itself  along  fresh  lengths  of  the  tube,  so  that  the 
contents  are  slowly  driven  forward. 

As  a  rule,  such  parts  as  are  provided  only  with  smooth 
muscle-fibers  are  not  voluntarily  movable,  while  striated  muscle- 
fibers  are  subject  to  the  will.  The  latter  have,  therefore,  been 
also  distinguished  as  voluntary,  the  former  as  involuntary 
muscles.  The  heart,  however,  exhibits  an  exception,  for,  though 
it  is  provided  with  striated  muscle-fibers,  the  will  has  no  direct 
influence  upon  it,  its  motions  being  exerted  and  regulated  inde- 
pendently of  the  will.  Moreover,  the  muscle-fibers  of  the  heart 
are  peculiar  in  that  they  are  destitute  of  sarcolemma,  the  naked 
muscle-fibers  directly  touching  each  other.  This  is  so  far  inter- 
esting that  direct  irritations,  if  applied  to  some  point  of  the 
heart,  are  transferred  to  all  the  other  muscle-fibers.  In  addition 
to  this,  the  muscle-fibers  of  the  heart  are  branched,  but  such 
branched  fibers  occur  also  in  other  places ;  for  example,  in  the 
tongue  of  the  frog,  where  they  are  branched  like  a  tree. 
Smooth  muscle-fibers  being,  therefore,  *  not  subject  to  the  will, 
are  caused  to  contract,  either  by  local  irritation,  such  as  the 
pressure  of  the  matter  contained  within  the  tubes,  or  by  the 
nervous  system.  The  contractions  of  striated  muscle-fibers  are 
effected,  in  the  natural  course  of  organic  life,  only  by  the  in- 
fluence of- the  nerves. — ROSENTHAL. 

Over-exertion  and  Personal  Imprudence  (p.  40).— Among 
children  there  is  little  danger  of  over-exertion.  "When  a  little 
child  reaches  the  point  of  healthy  fatigue,  he  usually  collapses 
into  rest  and  sleep.  But  with  youth  comes  the  spirit  of  ambi- 
tion and  emulation.  A  lad,  for  instance,  is  determined  to  win 
a  race,  to  throw  his  opponent  in  a  football  scramble,  to  lift  a 
heavier  weight  than  bis  strength  will  warrant ;  or  a  girl  is  stim- 
ulated by  the  passion  she  may  possess  for  piano-playing,  painting, 
dancing,  or  tennis.  The  moment  of  exhaustion  comes,  but  the 
end  is  not  accomplished,  .and  the  will  goads  on  the  weary 
muscles,  perhaps  to  one  supreme  effort  which  terminates  in  a 
sharp  and  sudden  illness,  perhaps  to  days  and  weeks  of  con- 


OVER-EXERTION.  279 

tinued  and  incessant  application,  during  which  the  whole  system 
is  undermined.  Thus  is  laid  the  foundation  for  a  feeble  and 
suffering  maturity. 

To  elderly  people,  over-exertion  has  peculiar  dangers,  de- 
pendent largely  upon  the  changes  which  gradually  take  place  in 
the  tissues  of  the  body.  The  walls  of  the  blood-vessels  become 
less  and  less  elastic,  and  more  and  more  brittle,  as  life  advances, 
until  at  last  they  are  ready  to  give  way  from  any  severe  or 
unusual  pressure.  We  constantly  see  old  people  hastening  their 
death  by  personal  imprudence.  An  old  gentleman  running  to 
catch  the  morning  train  ;  an  old  farmer  hastening  to  turn  the 
strayed  sheep  out  of  a  cornfield ;  the  old  sportsman  having  a 
last  run  with  the  hounds ;  the  last  pull  at  the  oars ;  the  last 
attempt  of  old  age  to  play  at  vigorous  manhood. 

A  prominent  American  physician  has  said  that  between  the 
ages  of  forty  and  fifty  every  wise  man  will  have  ceased  to  run 
to  "catch"  trains  or  street  cars;  and  that  between  fifty  and 
sixty  he  will  have  permanently  discarded  haste  of  all  kinds. 
Equal  precautions  should  be  observed  by  both  young  and  old, 
but  especially  by  those  advanced  in  life,  in  regard  to  extremes 
of  heat,  cold,  or  storm.  William  Cullen  Bryant,  by  exposing  him- 
self to  a  scorching  sun  and  refusing  to  permit  a  friend  to  pro- 
tect him  with  an  umbrella  while  delivering  an  address  in  Cen- 
tral Park,  received  injuries  to  his  system  that  carried  him  to 
his  grave.  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson,  by  standing  in  a  chilling 
wind,  contracted  a  cold  and  died.  George  Dawson,  by  going 
thoughtlessly  into  a  freezing  atmosphere  from  the  sweltering 
rooms  of  a  crowded  reception,  took  cold  which  resulted  in  pneu- 
monia and  death.  Matthew  Arnold,  for  years  a  sufferer  from 
heart  difficulty,  in  a  single  instance  neglected  the  advice  of  his 
physician  not  to  indulge  in  any  violent  exercise,  made  repeated 
attempts  and  finally  succeeded  in  jumping  a  fence,  and  in  a  few 
hours  was  a  dead  man.  Roscoe  Conkling  braved  the  most  ter- 
rible blizzard  ever  known  in  the  east  and  sacrificed  his  life. 
And  yet,  these  were  all  men  of  exceptional  prudence.  Probably 
no  other  five  persons  in  the  world  of  like  surroundings  and  vo- 
cations were  more  careful  of  their  health.  In  an  unguarded 
moment  their  prudence  left  them,  and  they  paicl  the  terrible 
penalty . — Compiled. 


.1 


280  THE     MUSCLES. 

Effects  of  Insufficient  Out-door  Exercise  upon  the 
Young  (p.  41). — Children  deprived  of  adequate  out-door  exercise 
are  always  delicate,  pale,  and  tender ;  or,  in  a  figurative  sense, 
they  are  like  the  sprig  of  vegetation  in  a  dark,  dank  hole, — 
bleached  and  spindling.  .  .  .  An  inactive  in-door  life  is  one  of 
the  most  effectual  ways  of  weakening  the  young  body.  It  ren- 
ders the  growth  unnaturally  soft  and  tender,  and  thus  susceptible 
to  harm  from  the  slightest  causes.  It  hinders  the  garnering  of 
strength  necessary  for  a  long  life,  and  gives  to  the  germs  of  disease 
a  resistless  power  over  an  organization  so  weak  and  deficient. 
.  .  .  Measles,  scarlet  fever,  and  diphtheria  find  among  such  a 
congenial  soil,  and  run  riot  among  the  elements  of  the  body 
held  together  by  so  frail  a  thread.  .  .  .  Such  children  are  always 
at  the  mercy  of  the  weather.  Colds  and  coughs  are  standard 
disorders  in  winter,  headaches  and  habitual  languor  in  summer. 
.  .  .  The  scape-goat  for  this  result  is  the  climate :  if  that  was 
only  better,  mothers  are  sure  their  children's  health  would  also 
be  better.  No,  it  would  not  be  better :  no  earthly  climate  is 
good  enough  to  preserve  health  and  strength  under  such  unnat- 
ural training.  .  .  .  Children  of  the  laboring  classes,  often  dirty 
and  imperfectly  clad,  seldom  have  colds,  simply  for  the  reason 
that,  for  the  greater  part  of  the  day,  they  have  the  freedom  of 
the  streets.  It  is  not  the  dirt,  it  is  not  the  rags,  but  the  life- 
giving  force  of  an  active  out-door  life  that  renders  such  children 
so  strong  and  healthy. — BLACK,  Ten  Laws  of  Health. 

Popular  Modes  of  Out-door  Exercise  (p.  42\— Walking.— 
Every  person  has  his  own  particular  step,  caused  by  the  con- 
formity, shape,  and  length  of  his  bones,  and  the  height  of  his 
body.  Such  a  thing,  then,  as  a  regulation  step  is  unnatural, 
and  any  attempt  at  equalizing  the  step  of  individuals  of  differ- 
ent heights  must  result  in  a  loss  of  power. 

The  moment,  also,  that  walking  comes  to  be  up-hill,  fatigue 
is  sensibly  increased.  The  center  of  gravity  of  the  body  is 
changed,  and  the  muscular  force  necessary  to  provide  for  the 
change  causes  the  fixing  of  the  diaphragm,  and  a  rigid  condi- 
tion of  many  muscles.  Respiration  is  interfered  with,  owing  to 
the  fixing  of  the  diaphragm,  and  the  heart  becomes  affected 
thereby.  A  person  with  a  sensitive  or  diseased  heart  can, 
during  a  walk,  tell  when  the  slightest  rise  in  the  ground  occurs. 


POPULAR     MODES     OF     EXERCISE.  281 

We  make  climbing  more  exhausting  from  the  habit  we  have  of 
suspending  the  breath.  Let  the  reader  hold  his  breath  and  run 
up  twenty-four  steps  of  a  stair,  and  then  perform  the  same  act 
breathing  freely  and  deeply.  It  will  be  found  that  by  the  first 
act  marked  breathlessness  will  be  induced,  whereas  by  the  latter 
the  effect  is  much  less.  This  management  of  the  breath  consti- 
tutes the  difference  between  the  beginner  and  the  experienced 
athlete.  The  enormous  increase  of  the  quantity  of  air  consumed 
during  exercise  will  at  once  bring  home  a  number  of  lessons. 
One  is,  that  exercise  is  best  taken  in  the  open  air,  and  not  in 
gymnasia ;  another,  that  free  play  to  act  for  the  regions  of  the 
chest  and  abdomen  must  be  given.  On  no  account  must  a  tight 
belt  be  worn  around  the  soft-walled  abdomen.  If  a  belt  is  pre- 
ferred to  braces,  let  it  be  applied  below  the  top  of  the  haunch 
bone,  where  the  bones  can  resist  the  pressure. 

Whatever  may  be  the  pastimes  indulged  in  by  young  men, 
walking  should  never  be  neglected.  The  oarsman  will  become 
"stale"  unless  the  method  of  exercise  is  varied;  the  gymnast 
will  develop  the  upper  part  of  his  body,  while  his  lower  ex- 
tremities will  remain  spindle-shanks.  So  with  all  other  forms 
of  exercise ;  success,  in  any  form  of  game,  sport,  or  gymnastic 
training,  can  not  be  attained  unless  walking  be  freely  taken. 

Skating  is  simply  an  exaggerated  swinging  walk,  with  this 
difference,  that  the  foot  on  which  one  rests  is  not  stationary, 
but  moves  along  at  a  rapid  rate.  The  benefit  to  the  circulation, 
respiration,  and  digestion  is  even  greater  in  skating  than  in 
walking.  The  dangers  from  skating  are : 

1.  The  giving  away  of  the  ice.    Great  caution  should  be  used 
in  regard  to  the  safety  of  a  frozen  pond  or  river. 

2.  Taking  cold  from  becoming  overheated,  and  from  subse- 
quent  inactive   exposure.      Physiological    knowledge  will    teach 
people  that,  when  they  begin  to  skate,  outer  wraps  should  be 
laid  aside,  and  again  put  on  when  skating  is  finished. 

3.  Sprains,  especially  of  the  ankle,  and  other  minor  accidents 
arising  from  falls.      Ankle-boots  with  strong  uppers  should  be 
worn  during  skating.      Those  who  have  weak  ankles  ought  to 
wear  skates  with  ankle-straps  and  buckles,   acme  skates  being 
relegated   to    those  who    are   not  afraid    of   going   "over  their 
foot." 


282  THE     MUSCLES. 

Rowing. — The  muscles  employed  in  rowing  may  be  summed 
up  under  two  heads — those  that  are  used  in  the  forward  swing, 
and  those  used  in  the  backward.  In  the  forward  swing  all  the 
joints  of  the  lower  extremity,  the  hip,  knee,  and  ankle,  are 
flexed ;  the  shoulder  is  brought  forward ;  the  elbow  is  straight- 
ened ;  and  the  wrist  is  first  extended  and  then  flexed,  in  feather- 
ing the  oar.  The  body  is  bent  forward  by  the  muscles  in  front 
of  the  abdomen  and  spinal  column.  In  the  backward  movement 
the  reverse  takes  place ;  the  lower  extremity,  the  hip,  knee,  and 
ankle  are  straightened ;  the  shoulder  is  pulled  back ;  the  elbow 
is  flexed ;  and  the  wrist  is  held  straight.  The  body  is  bent 
backward  by  the  muscles  at  the  lower  part  of  the  back,  and  by 
those  of  the  spine  in  general.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  enormous 
number  of  joints  put  into  use,  and  the  varying  positions  em- 
ployed, call  into  play  nearly  every  muscle  of  the  limbs  and 
trunk.  Rowing  gives  more  work  to  the  muscles  of  the  back 
than  any  other  kind  of  exercise.  This  is  of  the  first  importance 
to  both  men  and  women,  but  especially  to  women.  The  chief 
work  of  the  muscles  of  the  back  is  to  support  the  body  in  the 
erect  position,  and  the  better  they  are  developed  the  better  will 
the  carriage  be,  and  the  less  likelihood  of  stooping  shoulders, 
contracted  chests,  and  the  like.  Now,  the  work  of  the  muscles 
in  supporting  the  body  is  largely  relegated  in  women  to  the 
stays,  and,  in  consequence,  the  muscles  undergo  wasting  and 
fatty  degeneration,  in  fact,  atrophy ;  so  that  when  the  stays 
are  left  off,  the  muscles  are  unfit  to  support  the  body.  Bowing 
exercises  these  muscles  condemned  to  waste,  and  imparts  a  nat- 
ural carriage  to  the  girl's  frame.  In  rowing,  as  in  horseback 
riding,  the  clothing  should  be  loose,  stays  left  off,  and  flannels 
worn  next  the  skin.  The  dress  itself  should  be  of  woolen,  and 
there  should  always  be  in  the  boat  a  large  wrap  to  use  when 
one  stops  rowing.  The  following  practical  rules  should  be  ob- 
served by  rowers : 

1.  Never  row  after  a  full  meal. 

2.  Stop  when  fatigue  comes  on. 

3.  Allow  the  breath  to  escape  while  the  oar  is  in  the  water. 
A  novice  usually  holds  his  breath  at  each  stroke,  and  pulls  so 
rapidly  that  in  a  few  minutes  he  becomes   breathless,   and  is 
forced  to  stop.     Not  only  is  this  uncomfortable,  but  it  is  dan- 


POPULAR     MODES     OF     EXEECISE.  283 

gerous.  In  the  case  of  both  young  and  old,  it  may  give  rise  to 
an  abdominal  rupture  (hernia),  dilation  of  the  cavities  of  the 
heart,  rupture  of  a  heart-valve,  varicose  veins,  etc.  Instead  of 
fixing  the  diaphragm  and  holding  the  breath  during  the  time  of 
pulling,  as  novices  are  apt  to  do,  do  exactly  the  opposite.  Let 
the  diaphragm  go  loose,  and  allow  the  breath  to  escape. 

4.  Change  the  clothing  from  the  skin  outward  as  soon  as 
the  day's  rowing  is  finished. 

5.  Before  retiring  for  the  night,  have  a  warm  bath,  temper- 
ature 92°  Fahr.     This  is  a  specific  against  the  aches  and  muscu- 
lar stiffness  which  often  follow  a  long  pull  on  the  water. 

Swimming. — A  word  of  warning  is  necessary  in  regard  to 
those  learning  to  swim  in  rivers.  Boys  at  school,  when  they 
take  to  river  bathing,  often  carry  it  to  a  dangerous  extent. 
They  get  into  the  water,  and  now  in,  now  out  on  the  bank, 
sometimes  remain  for  hours.  This  may  take  place  day  after 
day,  and  if  the  weather  continues  warm  and  the  holidays  last 
long  enough,  the  boy  may  reduce  himself  to  the  lowest  ebb  of 
feebleness,  and  possibly  develop  the  seeds  of  latent  disease.  He 
may  even  die  from  the  effects  of  this  prolonged  immersion  and 
mad-cap  exposure. 

The  muscular  exertion  undergone  during  swimming,  espe- 
cially by  those  who  swim  only  occasionally,  is  very  great.  The 
experienced  swimmer  conserves  his  strength,  as  do  proficients  at 
all  feats,  but  the  occasional  swimmer,  like  the  occasional  rower, 
puts  forth  treble  the  energy  required,  and  soon  becomes  ex- 
hausted. In  the  first  place,  it  is  a  new  act  for  the  muscles  to 
perform ;  they  are  taken  off  from  the  beaten  tracks,  and  are 
grouped  together  in  new  associations ;  hence  they  lack  adjust- 
ment and  adaptation.  Again,  as  in  other  feats  for  which  one 
is  untrained,  the  heart  and  lungs  do  not  work  in  time.  Ease 
and  speed  in  swimming  depend  upon  the  attainment  of  harmony 
in  the  working  of  the  muscles,  heart,  and  lungs. 

Diving  is  an  accomplishment  attached  to  swimming,  which 
involves  many  dangers,  and  is  well-nigh  useless.  The  customary 
dive  off  a  spring-board  into  the  shallow  water  of  a  swimming- 
bath  is  dangerous  in  the  extreme.  The  only  place  where  diving 
should  be  attempted  is  into  deep  water,  at  least  fifteen  or 
twenty  feet,  where  there -is  no  danger  of  striking  the  bottom. 


284  THE     MUSCLES. 

Lawn-Tennis. — Of  all  modern  inventions  in  the  way  of 
games,  lawn-tennis  is  the  best. 

The  dangers  attendant  on  lawn-tennis  are : — 

1.  Over-exertion,  causing  rupture  and  deranged  circulation, 
especially  in  the  case  of  those  with  weak  hearts,  or  those  who, 
being  out  of  condition,  or  too  fat,  suddenly  engage  in  the  game 
too  long  or  too  violently. 

2.  Rupture  of  the  tendon  of  Achilles,  from  taking  a  sudden 
bound.     In  such  an  accident  the  subject  falls  down,  with  a  sen- 
sation as  if  struck  with  a  club  on  the  leg. 

3.  Rupture  of  one  of  the  heads  of  the  biceps  in  the   arm. 
Here  the  arm  drops  helplessly,  and  a  muscular  knob  rises  up 
on  the  inner  and  upper  part  of  the  arm. 

4.  The  tennis  arm.      This  trouble  arises  from  the  method  of 
manipulating  the  bat.     The  pain  is  felt  over  the  upper  end  of 
the  radius. 

Many  of  the  strains,  ruptured  tendons,  and  torn  muscles  in 
tennis-players  are  caused  by  the  want  of  heels  to  tennis  shoes. 
As,  ordinarily,  we  walk  on  heels  which  vary  from  half  an  inch 
to  an  inch,  there  must  be  a  considerable  extra  strain  thrown  on 
the  muscles  of  the  calf  of  the  leg,  when  the  heels  are  left  off. 
Especially  during  a  sudden  spring  is  this  apparent,  when  to  rise 
from  off  the  heels  on  to  the  toes  requires  a  greatly  increased 
force.  Tennis  shoes  should  therefore  have  fairly-deep,  broad 
heels. 

Horseback  Riding  is  a  mixed  exercise,  partly  active  and 
partly  passive,  the  lower  parts  of  the  body  being  in  some  meas- 
ure employed,  while  the  upper  parts  in  easy  cantering  are 
almost  wholly  relaxed.  It  is  peculiarly  suited  to  dyspeptics, 
from  its  direct  action  upon  the  abdominal  viscera,  the  contents 
of  which  are  stimulated  by  the  continued  agitation  and  succus- 
sion,  consequent  on  the  motion  in  riding. 

Bicycling  and  Tricycling. — "While  strongly  recommending 
bicycling  to  men,  and  tricycling  to  both  men  and  women  in 
health,  those  suffering  from  heart  or  lung  affections,  ruptures, 
scrofula,  joint  disease,  or  like  maladies,  should  not  indulge  in 
them  without  medical  sanction.  For  abdominal  complaints, 
such  as  dyspepsia,  congestion  of  the  liver,  constipation,  and  the 
like,  the  exercise  is  excellent. 


THE     HAIR.  285 

Base-Ball  is  an  essentially  American  game,  which  brings 
into  play  nearly  all  the  muscles  of  the  body.  Its  chief  danger 
lies  in  being  hit  by  the  hard,  forcibly  pitched  ball,  and,  for 
weak  persons,  in  the  violence  of  the  exercise. 

Foot-Ball  is  a  rough-and-tumble  game,  suited  only  to  that 
class  of  boys  and  men,  who,  brimming  over  with  animal  life, 
take  small  heed  of  the  accidents  liable  to  occur. 

Light  and  Heavy  Gymnastics. — For  wet  weather,  and  when 
out-door  exercise  is  not  practicable,  gymnastics  are  most  advis- 
able. Boys  and  girls,  at  the  age  of  fifteen  or  sixteen,  often 
shoot  up  and  become  tall  and  lanky ;  they  want  filling  out,  and 
are  troubled  with  growing  pains.  Even  men,  when  tall  and 
thin,  are  seldom  very  erect,  their  muscles  are  too  weak ;  and 
there  is  only  one  way  of  overcoming  this  weakness — by  exercis- 
ing them.  Nothing  more  is  wanted  than  a  pair  of  very  light 
Indian  clubs,  a  pair  of  light  wooden  dumb-bells,  a  long  wooden 
rod,  and  a  pair  of  wooden  rings, — the  last  for  combined  exer- 
cises. Indeed,  a  systematic  motion  of  the  body  itself,  without 
any  extra  artificial  resistance,  is  quite  sufficient  for  the  purposes 
of  physical  education.  In  nearly  all  our  large  cities  are  found 
gymnasia,  provided  with  competent  instructors,  and  every  facil- 
ity for  both  light  and  heavy  gymnastics.  Exercise  in  a  gym- 
nasium is  open  to  the  objection  of  being  too  brief  and  too  severe, 
and  of  simply  causing  an  increase  of  muscular  development. 
Besides,  it  is  generally  unequal  in  its  results,  being  better  adapted 
to  the  cultivation  of  strength  in  the  upper  extremities  and 
portion  of  the  body  than  in  the  lower.  Nevertheless,  during 
inclement  weather,  or  with  persons  in  whom  the  muscles  of  the 
arms  and  chest  are  defective,  moderate  gymnastic  exercise  is  far 
better  than  no  exercise. — Compiled.  (Mostly  from  "The,  Influence 
of  Exercise  "  in  The  Book  of  Health.} 


THE    SKIN. 

The  Hair  (p.  52).— Baldness,  and  its  Causes.—  Various  reasons 
are  assigned  for  the  baldness  which  is  so  prevalent  among  com- 
paratively young  men  in  our  country.  One  writer  says  :  ' '  The 
premature  baldness  and-grayness  of  the  Americans  as  a  people 


286  THE     SKIK. 

is  in  great  measure  owing  to  the  non-observance  of  hygienic 
rules,  and  to  excess  of  mental  and  physical  labor  in  a  climate 
foreign  to  the  race."  Others  attribute  it  to  the  close  unventi- 
lated  hats  commonly  worn  by  men.  Dr.  Nichols,  in  the  Popular 
Science  News,  gives  his  opinion  thus : 

"In  our  view,  it  is  largely  due  to  modern  methods  of  treat- 
ment of  the  hair  and  scalp.  The  erroneous  idea  prevails,  that 
the  skin  which  holds  the  hair-follicles  and  the  delicate  secretory 
organs  of  the  scalp  must  be  kept  as  '  clean,'  so  to  speak,  as  the 
face  or  hands ;  consequently  young  men  patronize  barbers  or 
hair-dressers,  and  once  or  twice  a  week  they  have  what  is  called 
a  'shampoo'  operation  performed.  This  consists  in  a  thorough 
scouring  of  the  hair  and  scalp  with  dilute  ammonia,  water,  and 
soap,  so  that  a  heavy  'lather'  is  produced,  and  the  glandular 
secretions,  which  are  the  natural  protection  of  the  hair,  and 
promotive  of  its  growth,  are  saponified  and  removed.  No  act 
could  be  more  directly  destructive  of  a  healthy  growth  of  hair 
than  this.  .  .  .  Women  do  not  shampoo  or  wash  the  hair  as 
often  as  the  other  sex,  and  consequently  they  are  in  a  large 
degree  exempt  from  baldness  in  middle  life.  It  is  true,  how- 
ever, that  many  women  in  cities  make  frequent  visits  to  the 
hair-dressers,  and  subject  their  tresses  to  the  '  scouring '  process. 
If  this  becomes  common,  it  will  not  be  long  before  baldness  will 
overtake  the  young  mothers  as  well  as  the  fathers,  and  the  time 
will  be  hastened  when  even  children  will  have  no  hair  to  destroy 
with, ammonia  or  other  caustic  cosmetics. 

V  "The  advice  we  have  to  offer  to  young  men  and  maidens 
is, — let  your  hair  alone  ;  keep  at  a  safe  distance  from  hair-dress- 
ing rooms  and  drug-shops,  where  are  sold  oils,  alkaline  sub- 
stances, alcoholic  mixtures,  etc.,  for  use  upon  the  hair.  They  are 
all  pernicious,  and  will  do  you  harm.  The  head  and  hair  may 
be  washed  occasionally  with  soft,  tepid  water,  without  soap  of 
any  kind.  As  a  rule,  the  only  appliances  needed  in  the  care  of 
the  hair  are  good  combs  and  brushes ;  and  they  should  not  be 
«**used  harshly,  so  as  to  wound  the  scalp.  Avoid  all  '  electric '  and 
wire-made  brushes.  No  electricity  can  be  stored  in  a  hair-brush : 
if  it  could  be,  it  is  not  needed." 

Sudden  Blanching  of  the  Hair  from  Violent  Emotions.— The 
color  of  the  hair  depends  mainly  upon  the  presence  of  pigment 


THE     HAIR.  287 

granules,  which  range  in  tint  from  a  light  yellow  to  an  intense 
black.  A  recent  investigator  has  succeeded  in  extracting  the 
coloring  matter  of  the  hair,  and  has  found  that  all  the  different 
shades  are  produced  by  the  mixture  of  three  primary  colors — 
red,  yellow,  and  black.  "In  the  pure  golden  yellow  hair  there 
is  only  the  yellow  pigment ;  in  red  hair  the  red  pigment  is 
mixed  with  more  or  less  yellow,  producing  the  various  shades 
of  red  and  orange ;  in  dark  hair  the  black  is  always  mixed  with 
yellow  and  red,  but  the  latter  are  overpowered  by  the  black ; 
and  it  seems  that  even  the  blackest  hair,  such  as  that  of  the 
negro,  contains  as  much  red  pigment  as  the  very  reddest  hair." 
Hence,  "if  in  the  negro  the  black  pigment  had  not  been  de- 
veloped, the  hair  of  all  negroes  would  be  a  fiery  red."— DR.  C. 
H.  LEONARD.  The  Hair:  Its  Diseases  and  Treatment. 

The  gradual  disappearance  of  this  pigment  causes  the  gray 
or  white  hair  of  old  age.  This  natural  change  in  color  does 
not  necessarily  denote  loss  of  vitality  in  the  hair,  as  it  often 
continues  to  grow  as  vigorously  as  before  it  began  to  whiten. 
Cases  of  sudden  blanching  of  the  hair  from  extreme  grief  or 
terror  are  often  quoted,  —  those  of  Sir  Thomas  More  and  of 
Marie  Antoinette  being  well-known  instances  in  point.  An 
interesting  circumstance  has  been  discovered  with  regard  to  such 
cases,  namely,  that  the  change  of  color  is  not  dependent  upon 
the  disappearance  of  the  pigment  of  the  hair,  which  always 
takes  place  slowly,  but  upon  the  sudden  development  in  its 
interior  of  a  number  of  air-bubbles,  that  hide  and  destroy  the 
effect  of  the  pigment,  which  itself  remains  unaltered.  Dr.  Lan- 
dois  mentions  the  case  of  a  German  printer  whom  he  attended, 
at  a  hospital,  in  the  summer  of  1865. 

This  man  had  long  been  intemperate  in  his  habits,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  he  was  seized  with  delirium  tremens.  The  de- 
lirium, as  is  usual  in  such  cases,  was  of  an  extremely  terrifying 
nature,  and  lasted  four  days.  On  the  evening  of  the  fourth  day 
the  hair  was  unaltered,  but  on  the  morning  of  the  fifth  the  de- 
lirium had  disappeared,  and  his  hair,  which  previously  was  fair, 
had  become  gray.  It  was  examined  with  the  microscope,  when 
it  was  found  that  the  pigment  was  still  present,  but  that  the 
central  streak  of  each  was  filled  with  air-bubbles. 

How  this  superabundance  of  air  finds  its  way  into  the  hair 


288  THESKIN. 

in  these  cases  of  sudden  blanching,  physiologists  have  not  yet 
been  able  satisfactorily  to  explain.— In  this  connection,  however, 
it  may  be  observed  that  air-bubbles  exist,  more  or  less,  in  all 
hair,  mingled  with  the  pigment  granules. 

The  feathers  of  birds  owe  their  bright  colors  to  an  oily  secre- 
tion corresponding  to  the  pigment  in  hair,  and  microscopical 
observation  has  revealed  the  fact  that  when  these  colors  fade 
the  oily  secretion  disappears,  and  is  replaced  by  air.  That  ex- 
treme terror  may  blanch  feathers  as  well  as  hair  is  shown  in 
the  case  of  a  poor  little  starling,  which  upon  being  rescued  from 
the  claws  of  a  cat  became  suddenly  white. 

The  Nails  (p.  54).— The  nails  are  mere  modifications  of  the 
scarfskin,  their  horny  appearance  and  feeling  being  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  scales  or  plates  of  which  they  are  composed  are 
much  harder  and  more  closely  packed.  The  root  of  the  nail  lies 
embedded,  to  the  extent  of  about  the  twelfth  part  of  an  inch, 
in  a  fold  of  the  sensitive  skin,  and,  as  may  be  observed  from 
an  inspection  of  the  part,  the  scarfskin  is  not  exactly  contin- 
uous with  the  nail,  but  projects  a  little  above  it,  forming  a 
narrow  margin. 

The  nail,  like  the  scarfskin,  rests  upon,  and  is  intimately 
connected  with,  a  structure  almost  identical  with  the  sensitive 
skin ;  this  is,  however,  thrown  into  ridges,  which  run  parallel 
to  one  another,  except  at  the  back  part,  where  they  radiate  from 
the  center  of  the  root.  On  examining  the  surface  of  the  nail,  a 
semicircular  whitish  portion  is  detected  near  its  root ;  its  color 
is  dependent  upon  the  fact  that  the  ridges  there  contain  fewer 
blood-vessels,  and  therefore  less  blood,  and  on  account  of  its 
half-moon  shape  it  is  called  the  lunula. 

The  nail  is  constantly  increasing  in  length,  owing  to  the 
formation  of  new  cells  at  the  root,  which  push  it  forward,  while 
the  increase  in  its  thickness  is  due  to  the  secretion  of  new  cells 
from  the  sensitive  layer  beneath,  so  that  the  farther  the  nail 
grows  from  the  root,  the  thicker  it  becomes.  Its  nutrition,  and 
consequently  its  growth,  suffers  in  disease,  the  portion  growing 
during  disease  being  thinner  than  that  growing  in  health ;  and 
accordingly  a  transverse  groove  is  seen  upon  the  nail,  corre- 
sponding to  the  time  of  an  illness.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  by 
a  mere  examination  of  the  nail  we  can  astonish  our  friends  by 


BATHS     AND     BATHING.  289 

telling  them  when  they  have  been  ill ;  and  it  has  been  estimated 
that  the  nail  of  the  thumb  grows  from  its  root  to  its  free  ex- 
tremity in  five  months,  that  of  the  great  toe  in  twenty  months, 
so  that  a  transverse  groove  in  the  middle  of  the  former  indicates 
an  illness  about  two  and  a  half  months  before,  and  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  latter,  about  ten  months. 

The  culture  of  the  nails,  which  when  perfect  constitute  so 
great  a  beauty,  is  of  much  importance ;  but  the  tendency  is  to 
injure  them  by  too  much  attention.  The  scissors  should  never 
be  used  except  to  pare  the  free  edges  when  they  have  become 
ragged  or  too  long,  and  the  folds  of  scarfskin  which  overlap 
the  roots  should  not,  as  a  rule,  be  touched,  unless  they  be 
frayed,  when  the  torn  edges  may  be  snipped  off,  so  as  to  pre- 
vent their  being  torn  further,  which  may  cause  much  pain,  and 
even  inflammation.  The  upper  surfaces  of  the  nails  should  on 
no  account  be  touched  with  the  knife,  as  is  so  often  done,  the 
nail-brush  being  amply  sufficient  to  keep  them  clean,  without 
impairing  their  smooth  and  polished  surfaces. — HINTON. 

Baths  and  Bathing  (p.  65).— Physical  Cleanliness  Promotes 
Moral  Purity. — The  old  adage  that  cleanliness  is  next  to  godli- 
ness, must  have  had  its  origin  in  the  feeling  of  moral  elevation 
which  generally  accompanies  scrupulous  bodily  purity.  Frequent 
bathing  promotes  purity  of  mind  and  morals.  The  man  who  is 
accustomed  to  be  physically  clean  shrinks  instinctively  from 
contact  with  all  uncleanliness.  Personal  neatness,  when  grown 
into  a  habit,  draws  after  it  so  many  excellences,  that  it  may 
well  be  called  a  social  virtue.  Without  it,  refined  intercourse 
would  be  impossible ;  for  its  neglect  not  only  indicates  a  want 
of  proper  self-respect,  but  a  disrespect  of  the  feelings  of  others 
which  argues  a  low  tone  of  the  moral  sense.  All  nations,  as 
they  advance  in  civilization  and  refinement  of  manners,  pay  in- 
creased attention  to  the  purity  of  the  person. 

What,  then,  shall  we  say  of  people  who,  after  all  that  has 
been  said  and  written  upon  the  subject,  seldom  or  never  bathe, 
who  allow  the  pores  of  the  skin  to  get  blocked  up  with  a  com- 
bination of  dust  and  perspired  matter,  which  is  as  effectual  in 
its  way  as  plaster  to  the  walls  of  a  building?  Could  they  but 
once  be  tempted  to  taste  the  delights  which  arise  from  a  per- 
fectly clean  and  well-acting  skin;  the  cheerfulness,  nay,  the 


290  THE     SKIN. 

feeling  of  moral  as  well  as  physical  elevation,  which  accom- 
panies the  sense  of  that  cleanliness,  they  would  soon  esteem  the 
little  time  and  trouble  spent  in  the  bath,  and  in  the  proper  care 
of  the  surface  of  the  body,  as  time  and  labor  very  well  spent.— 
DR.  STRANGE. 

The  feet,  particularly,  should  receive  daily  attention,  if  it  be 
no  more  than  a  vigorous  rubbing  with  a  wet  cloth,  followed  by 
a  dry  one.  After  a  long  walk,  also,  nothing  is  more  refresh- 
ing, especially  in  summer,  than  a  generous  foot-bath  in  cool  or 
tepid  water,  followed  by  an  entire  change  in  shoes  and  stock- 
ings. This  is  really  a  necessary  precaution,  if  the  feet  have 
become  wet  from  the  dampness  of  the  ground ;  and  if  the  walk 
has  heated  the  body  so  that  the  stockings  are  moist  with  per- 
spiration, it  is  not  only  an  act  of  prudence,  but  an  instinct  of 
personal  neatness. 

Ancient  Greek  and  Roman  Baths. — From  the  earliest  historic 
times  the  necessity  for  frequent  and  thorough  ablution  has  been 
recognized  by  artificial  provisions  for  this  purpose.  The  Greeks 
had  "steaming  baths"  and  "fragrant  anointing  oils,"  as  far 
back  as  Homer's  time,  a  thousand  years  before  Christ,  but  the 
Romans  surpassed  all  preceding  and  subsequent  nations  by  their 
magnificent  and  luxuriously  equipped  Thermae,  in  which  a  bath 
cost  less  than  a  cent,  and  was  often  free.  A  fuir  Roman  bath 
included  hot  air,  dry  rubbing,  hot,  tepid,  and  cold  water  im- 
mersions, scraping  with  bronze  instruments,  and  anointing  with 
precious  perfumes. 

The  Modern  Russian  and  Turkish  baths  are  the  nearest  ap- 
proaches we  have  to  the  Roman  bath.  These  are  found  in 
nearly  all  our  larger  cities. 

The  Turkish  Bath  is  conducted  in  a  modified  form  in  this 
country,  generally  with  hot  air  instead  of  steam.  Its  frequent 
use  not  only  tends  to  keep  the  body  in  a  state  of  perfect  clean- 
liness, but  it  imparts  a  clear,  fresh  color  to  the  complexion 
which  is  hardly  attained  by  other  means. 

"Its  most  important  effect,"  says  a  writer  in  the  Popular 
Science  Monthly,  "is  the  stimulation  of  the  emunctory  action  of 
the  skin.  By  this  means  we  are  enabled  to  wash  as  it  were  the 
solid  and  fluid  tissues,  and  especially  the  blood  and  skin,  by 
passing  water  through  them  from  within  outward  to  the  surface 


BATHS    AND    BATHING.  291 

of  the  body.  Hence,  in  practice,  one  of  the  most  essential  requi- 
sites is  copious  draughts  of  water  during  the  sweating." 

During  the  operation  of  a  Turkish  bath,  the  novice  is  often 
astonished  at  the  amount  of  effete  matter  eliminated  from  the 
pores  of  the  skin.  "A  surprising  quantity  of  scarf  skin,  which 
no  washing  could  remove,  peels  off,  especially  if  a  glove  of 
camel's-hair  or  goat's-hair  be  used,  as  they  are  in  the  East, 
where  also  the  soles  of  the  feet  are  scraped  with  pumice.  The 
deposit  of  this  skin  of  only  a  week's  date,  when  collected,  is 
often  as  large  as  one's  fist.  Much  more  solid  matter  is  contained 
in  the  perspiration  of  those  who  take  the  bath  for  the  first  time, 
or  after  a  long  interval.  Nothing  escapes  through  the  skin, 
save  what  is  noxious  if  retained.  This  bath  should  never  be 
used  in  case  of  advanced  lung  diseases,  great  debility,  acute  in- 
flammations, or  persons  who  labor  under  any  form  of  heart 
disease;  but  I  think  its  influence  is  directly  curative  in  rheu- 
matic, gouty,  and  scrofulous  affections,  some  skin  diseases,  and 
the  earlier  stages  of  feverish  colds  and  ague.  It  is  said  to  have 
calming  effects  in  the  treatment  of  insanity,  and  the  use  of  it 
was  suggested  from  the  heavy  smell  the  skin  of  persons  thus 
afflicted  often  has." — MAPOTHER'S  Lectures  on  Pvhlic  Health. 

A  somewhat  heroic  bath,  used  in  Siberia  to  drive  away  a 
threatened  fever,  consists  of  a  thorough  parboiling,  within  an 
inch  or  two  of  a  steaming  furnace,  after  which  the  subject  is 
"  drubbed  and  flogged  for  about  half  an  hour  with  a  bundle  of 
birch  twigs,  leaf  and  all."  A  douche  of  cold  water  is  then 
dashed  over  the  exhausted  bather,  when  he  is  ready  to  be  put 
into  bed. 

^/'  Sea-bathing. — Before  the  age  of  seven  years,  and  after  fifty- 
five,  sea-baths  should  be  used  with  the  greatest  caution.  All 
persons  unaccustomed  to  sea-bathing  should  begin  with  a  warm 
or  tepid  bath,  in-doors,  proceeding  by  degrees  to  the  cold  in- 
door bath,  and  then  to  the  open  sea. 

The  sea-bath  should  be  taken,  if  possible,  when  the  sun  is 
shining,  when  the  water  has  been  warmed  by  contact  with  the 
heated  sands,  and  never  during  the  digestion  of  the  principal 
meal,  or  late  in  the  evening.  Immediately  on  plunging  into 
the  water,  which  need  not,  except  in  persons  of  full  habit,  cover 
the  head,  brisk  motion  of  some  kind  should  be  used.  Those 


292  THE     SKIN. 

who  can  swim  should  do  so;  .those  who  can  not,  should  make 
as  much  exertion  of  the  limbs  as  possible,  or  rub  the  body  with 
their  hands.  The  delicate,  and  particularly  those  who  are  recov- 
ering from  illness,  should  remove  from  the  bath  as  soon  as  the 
glow  arrives;  or,  if  that  be  not  felt  at  all,  then  after  one  plunge. 

Danger  in  Bathing  when  Overheated. — It  is  unwise  to  bathe 
when  copious  perspiration  has  continued  for  an  hour  or  more, 
unless  the  heat  of  the  weather  be  excessive,  or  the  sweating  has 
been  induced  by  loading  with  clothes,  rather  than  by  exertion. 
When  much  perspiration  has  been  produced  by  muscular  exer- 
cise, it  is  unsafe  to  bathe,  because  the  body  is  so  fatigued  and 
exhausted,  that  the  reaction  can  not  be  insured,  and  the  effect 
may  be  to  congest  the  internal  organs,  and  notably  the  nerve- 
centers.  The  last  gives  cramp.  If  the  weather  be  chilly,  or 
there  be  a  cold  wind,  so  that  the  body  may  be  rapidly  cooled 
at  the  surface  while  undressing,  it  is  not  safe  to  bathe.  Under 
such  conditions,  the  further  chill  of  immersion  in  cold  water 
will  take  place  at  the  precise  moment  at  which  the  reaction 
consequent  upon  the  chill  of  exposure  by  undressing  ought  to 
take  place,  and  this  second  chill  will  not  only  delay  or  alto- 
gether prevent  the  reaction,  but  will  convert  the  bath  from  a 
mere  stimulant  to  a  depressant,  ending  in  the  abstraction  of  a 
large  amount  of  animal  heat  and  congestion  of  the  internal 
organs  and  nerve-centers.  The  aim  must  be  to  avoid  two  chills, 
and  to  make-  sure  that  the  body  is  in  such  a  condition  as  to 
secure  a  quick  reaction  on  emerging  from  the  water,  without 
relying  too  much  on  the  possible  effect  of  friction  by  rubbing. 
The  actual  temperature  of  the  water  does  not  affect  the  ques- 
tion so  much  as  its  relative  temperature  in  comparison  with 
that  of  the  surrounding  air.  It  ought  to  be  much  lower  than 
that  of  the  air.  These  maxims  receive  a  striking  re-enforcement 
from  the  case  of  a  young  soldier  who  a  few  days  ago  plunged 
into  the  river  near  Manchester,  England,  after  having  heated 
himself  by  rowing.  He  was  immediately  taken  with  cramps, 
and  was  drowned.  When  taken  out,  his  body  was  found 
"twisted,"  and  the  vessels  of  his  head  showed  every  evidence 
of  congestion. — Popular  Science  Monthly,  September,  1883. 

Bather's  Cramp. — Cramp  is  a  painful  and  tonic  muscular 
spasm.  It  may  occur  in  any  part  of  the  body,  but  it  is  espe- 


BATHS     AND     BATHING.  293 

cially  apt  to  take  place  in  the  lower  extremities,  and  in  its 
milder  forms  it  is  limited  to  a  single  muscle.  The  pain  is  severe, 
and  the  contracted  muscles  are  hard  and  exquisitely  tender.  In 
a  few  minutes  the  spasm  and  pain  cease,  leaving  a  local  sensa- 
tion of  fatigue  and  soreness.  When  cramp  affects  only  one  ex- 
tremity, no  swimmer  or  bather  endowed  with  average  presence 
of  mind  need  drown ;  but  when  cramp  seizes  the  whole  of  the 
voluntary  muscular  system,  as  it  probably  does  in  the  worst 
cases,  nothing  in  the  absence  of  prompt  and  efficient  extraneous 
assistance  can  save  the  individual  from  drowning.*  Prolongation 
of  muscular  exertion,  as  in  continued  swimming,  and  forcible 
and  sudden  muscular  exertion,  as  in  swimming  with  very  vigor- 
ous and  rapid  strokes,  are  efficient  and  frequent  causes  of 
cramp.  These  muscular  conditions,  however,  usually  give  rise 
only  to  the  slighter  and  more  localized  forms.  Serious  cramp 
is  a  peril  which  menaces  most  persons  with  highly  developed 
muscles.  Its  most  powerful  and  most  avoidable  cause  is  the 
sudden  immersion  of  the  body,  when  its  surface  is  highly 
heated,  in  water  of  a  relatively  low  temperature.  —  Popular 
Science  News. 

Protection  of  the  Ear  in  Sea-bathing. — Special  attention  should 
be  paid  by  bathers  to  the  exclusion  of  salt  water  from  the  mouth 
and  ears.  Many  cases  of  inflammation  of  the  ear,  followed  by 
severe  and  lasting  trouble,  even  to  deafness,  are  chargeable  to 
the  neglect  of  this  precaution.  In-coming  waves  should  never 
be  received  in  the  face  or  the  ears,  and  the  sea-water  which 
enters  the  ears  when  floating  or  diving  should  be  wiped  out  by 
soft  cotton  ;  indeed,  the  best  plan  is  to  plug  the  openings  of  the 
ears  with  cotton,  which  is  to  be  kept  there  during  the  bath.— 
Science. 

How  one  who  Knows  not  how  to  Swim  can  Escape  Drowning. — 
It  is  well  for  every  one  to  learn  the  art  of  swimming,  yet  it  is 

*  Even  this  is  often  unavailable,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Cornell  Univer- 
sity post-graduate  drowned  in  Hall  Creek,  Ithaca,  June  10,  1888.  In  this 
instance  the  day  was  hot  and  oppressive,  and  the  victim  sank  soon  after 
entering  the  water.  "  His  companions  at  once  hastened  to  his  relief,  and 
recovered  his  body  in  a  few  minutes.  Professor  Wilder,  of  the  University, 
was  hurriedly  summoned,  and  every  possible  method  was  resorted  to  in 
order  to  induce  respiration,  but  the  vital  spark  had  fled.  An  attack  of 
cramps  is  supposed  to  have  iJeen  the  cause  of  drowning." 


294  THE     SKIN. 

a  knowledge  possessed  by  comparatively  few  people.  Mr.  Henry 
MacCormac,  a  writer  in  Nature,  gives  some  common  sense  in- 
structions that,  if  heeded,  may  be  of  great  service  to  those  per- 
sons who,  not  knowing  how  to  swim,  may  find  themselves  ac- 
cidentally precipitated  into  the  water.  We  condense  from  his 
article,  adding  some  directions,  as  follows: 

In  order  to  escape  drowning,  it  is  necessary  only  to  do  as 
the  brute  does,  namely,  to  walk  or  tread  the  water.  The  brute 
has  no  advantage  over  man  in  regard  to  his  relative  weight, 
and  yet  the  man  perishes  while  the  brute  survives.  The  igno- 
rance of  so  simple  a  possibility  as  that  of  treading  water  strikes 
me  as  one  of  the  most  singular  things  in  the  history  of  man. 
Perhaps  something  is  to  be  ascribed  to  the  vague  meaning  which 
is  attached  to  the  word  Swim.  The  dog  is  wholly  incapable  of 
swimming  as  a  man  swims,  but  nothing  is  more  certain  than 
that  a  man,  without  previous  training  or  instruction,  can  swim 
just  as  a  dog  swims,  and  that  by  so  doing  without  fear  or  hes- 
itancy, he  will  be  just  as  safe  as  is  the  dog.  The  brute  thus 
circumstanced  continues  to  go  on  all  fours,  as  if  he  were  on 
land,  keeping  his  head  well  out  of  the  water.  So  with  the  man 
who  wishes  to  save  his  life  and  can  not  otherwise  swim.  He 
^must  strike  alternately,  with  hand  and  foot, — one,  two,  one,  two, 
— without  hurry  or  precipitation,  exactly  as  the  brute  does. 
Whether  he  be  provided  with  paw  or  hoof,  the  beast  swims  with 
perfect  ease  and  buoyancy.  So,  too,  can  the  human  being,  if  he 
will,  with  the  further  immense  advantage  of  having  a  paddle- 
formed  hand,  and  of  being  able,  when  tired,  to  rest  himself  by 
floating,  an  act  of  which  the  animal  has  no  conception.  The 
printed  direction  should  be  pasted  up  in  all  boat-houses,  on  every 
boat,  at  every  bathing-place,  and  in  every  school :  Tread  water 
when  you  find  yourself  out  of  your  depth.  This  is  all  that  need 
be  said,  unless,  indeed,  we  add:  Float  when  you  are  tired.  To 
float,  one  needs  only  to  turn  upon  his  back,  keeping — as  always 
when  in  the  water — the  mouth  and  chin  well  up  and  the  lungs 
full  of  air.— Every  one  of  us,  of  whatever  age  and  however 
encumbered  with  clothing,  may  tread  water,  even  in  a  breaking 
sea,  with  as  much  facility  as  a  four-footed  animal.  The  position 
of  the  water-treader  is,  really,  very  much  safer  and  better  than 
the  sprawling  attitude  of  the  ordinary  swimmer.  But  the  chief 


HINTS     ON     CLOTHING.  295 

advantage  lies  in  the  fact  that  we  can  tread  water  without  pre- 
liminary teaching,  whereas,  though  we  recommend  all  to  learn 
how  to  swim,  it  involves  time  and  pains,  entails  considerable 
fatigue,  and  is,  after  all,  very  seldom  adequately  acquired.  (^  £ 
\  Hints  on  Clothing  (p.  67).— Advantages  of  Woolen  Fabrics. 
— Wool  is  more  irritating  than  cotton,  on  account  of  the  stiff- 
ness of  the  hairs  with  which  it  bristles ;  but  the  excitation  it 
produces  becomes  a  therapeutic  means  whenever  the  skin  needs 
a  stimulant. 

The  use  of  wool  is  particularly  desirable  in  some  countries 
and  under  some  conditions  of  life.  Professor  Brocchi,  a  writer 
well  known  for  his  investigations  in  malaria,  attributes  the  good 
health  and  vigor  of  the  ancient  Romans  to  their  habit  of  wear- 
ing coarse  woolen  clothes  ;  when  they  began  to  disuse  them,  and 
to  wear  lighter  goods  and  silks,  they  became  less  vigorous  and 
less  able  to  resist  the  morbid  influence  of  bad  air.  It  was  at 
about  the  time  the  women  began  to  dress  in  notably  fine  tissues 
that  the  insalubrity  of  the  Roman  air  began  first  to  be  com- 
plained of.  "In  the  English  army  and  navy,"  says  Dr.  Balestra, 
"the  soldiers  of  garrisons  in  unhealthy  places  are  obliged  con- 
stantly to  wear  wool  next  to  the  skin,  and  to  cover  themselves 
with  sufficient  clothing,  for  protection  against  paludine  fevers, 
dysentery,  cholera,  and  other  diseases."  According  to  Patissier, 
similar  measures  have  been  found  effectual  in  preserving  the 
health  of  workmen  employed  on  dikes,  canals,  and  ditches,  in 
marshy  lands ;  while,  previous  to  the  employment  of  these  pre- 
cautions, mortality  from  fevers  was  considerable  among  them. 

Dr.  Balestra  has  proved  by  direct  experiments  in  marshy 
regions  that  thick  and  hairy  woolen  garments  arrest  in  their 
down  a  portion  of  the  germs  borne  in  by  the  air,  which  thus 
reaches  the  skin  filtered  and  purified.  The  ancient  Romans 
wore  ample  over-garments  over  their  tunics,  and  never  put  them 
away.  It  is  no  less  important  to  be  well  covered  during  the 
night ;  and  precautions  of  this  kind  should  be  recommended  to 
all  who  live  in  a  swampy  country.  We  are  sometimes  aston- 
ished when  we  see  the  natives  of  particularly  warm  countries 
enveloped  in  woolen,  as  the  Arab  in  his  burnoose,  or  the  Span- 
ish peasant  in  his  tobacco-colored  cloak.  Such  materials  protect 
both  against  the  rays  of  the  sun  and  against  the  coolness  of  the 


296  THE     SKIN. 

night,  and  are  excellent  regulators  of  heat.  It  is  dangerously 
imprudent  to  travel  in  southern  countries  without  provision  of 
warm  clothing. — Revue  des  Deux  Mondes. 

Weight  is  not  Warmth. — While  speaking  of  the  warmth  of 
clothing  for  inclement  weather,  it  would  be  incorrect  not  to 
speak  of  weight  in  relation  to  warmth.  Many  persons  mistake 
weight  for  warmth,  and  thus  feeble  people  are  actually  borne 
down  and  weakened  by  the  excess  of  heavy  clothing  which  is 
piled  on  them.  G-ood  woolen  or  fur  fabrics  retain  the  heat,  and 
yet  are  light.  When  fabrics  intended  for  sustaining  warmth  are 
made  up  of  cotton,  the  mistake  of  accepting  weight  for  warmth 
is  made.  The  same  errors  are  often  made  in  respect  to  bed- 
coverings,  and  with  the  same  results. 

Poisonously  Dyed  Clothing. — The  introduction  of  wearing  ap- 
parel, socks,  stockings,  and  flannels  which  have  been  made,  by 
new  processes  of  dyeing,  to  assume  a  rich  red  or  yellow  color, 
has  led  to  a  local  disease  of  the  skin,  attended,  in  rare  cases, 
with  slight  constitutional  symptoms.  This  disease  is  due  to  the 
dye-stuffs.  The  chief  poisonous  dyes  are  the  red  and  yellow 
coralline,  substances  derived  from  that  series  of  chemical  bodies 
which  have  been  obtained  of  late  years  from  coal  tar,  and  com- 
monly known  as  the  aniline  series. 

The  coloring  principle  is  extremely  active  as  a  local  poison. 
It  induces  on  the  skin  a  reddish,  slightly  raised  eruption  of  mi- 
nute round  pimples  which  stud  the  reddened  surface,  and  which, 
if  the  irritation  be  severe  and  long-continued,  pass  into  vesicles 
discharging  a  thin  watery  ichor  and  producing  a  superficial  sore. 
The  disease  is  readily  curable  if  the  cause  of  it  be  removed,  and, 
as  a  general  rule,  it  is  purely  local  in  character.  I  have,  how- 
ever, once  seen  it  pass  beyond  the  local  stage.  A  young  gen- 
tleman consulted  me  for  what  he  considered  was  a  rapidly  de- 
veloped attack  of  erysipelas  on  the  chest  and  back.  He  was, 
indeed,  covered  with  an  intensely  red  rash,  and  he  was  affected 
with  nervous  symptoms,  with  faintness  and  depression  of  pulse, 
of  a  singular  and  severe  kind.  I  traced  both  the  local  eruption 
and  the  general  malady  to  the  effect  of  the  organic  dye  in  a  red 
woolen  chest  and  back  "comforter."  On  removing  the  "com- 
forter" all  the  symptoms  ceased.  Similar  and  even  fatal  cases 
have  been  known  from  the  wearing  of  highly  colored  hose. 


THE     VOCAL     ORGANS.  297 

Uncleanliness  of  Dress. — Uncleanly  attire  creates  conditions 
favorable  to  disease.  Clothing  worn  too  long  at  a  time  becomes 
saturated  with  the  excretions  and  exhalations  of  the  body,  and, 
by  preventing  the  free  transpiration  from  the  surface  of  the 
skin,  induces  oppression  of  the  physical  powers  and  mental  in- 
activity. This  observation  will  be  accepted  by  most  persons  as 
true  in  respect  to  "nder-clothing ;  it  is  equally  true  in  regard  to 
those  outer  garments  which  are  often  worn,  unremittingly,  until 
the  linings,  torn  and  soiled,  are  unfit  altogether  for  contact  with 
the  cleaner  garments  beneath  them.  Health  will  not  be  clothed 
in  dirty  raiment.  They  who  wear  such  raiment  suffer  from 
trains  of  minor  complairts ;  from  oppression,  dullness,  head- 
ache, nausea,  which,  though  trifling  in  themselves,  taken  one  by 
one,  when  put  together  greatly  reduce  that  standard  of  perfect 
health  by  which  the  value  of  life  is  correctly  and  effectively 
maintained . — RICHARDSON. 


RESPIRATION. 

The  Vocal  Organs.—  Musical  Tones  in  Speaking  (p.  76).— 
Voice  is  divided  into  singing  and  speaking  voice.  On,e  differs 
from  the  other  almost  as  much  as  noises  do  from  musical 
sounds.  In  speaking,  the  sounds  are  too  short  to  be  easily  ap- 
preciable, and  are  not  separated  by  fixed  and  regular  intervals, 
like  those  of  singing;  they  are  linked  together,  generally  by 
insensible  transitions ;  they  are  not  united  by  the  fixed  relations 
of  the  gamut,  and  can  only  be  noted  with  difficulty.  That  it  is 
the  short  duration  of  speaking  sounds  which  distinguishes  them 
from  those  of  singing,  is  proved  by  this,  that  if  we  prolong  the 
intonation  of  a  syllable,  or  utter  it  like  a  note,  the  musical 
sound  becomes  evident.  So,  if  we  pronounce  all  the  syllables 
of  a  phrase  in  the  same  tone,  the  speaking  voice  closely  resem- 
bles psalm-singing.  Every  one  must  have  noticed  this  in  hear- 
ing school-boys  recite  or  read  in  a  monotone,  and  the  analogy 
is  complete  when  the  last  two  or  three  syllables  are  pronounced 
in  a  different  tone.  Spoken  voice  is,  moreover,  always  a  chant 
more  or  less  marked,  according  to  the  individual  and  the  senti- 
ment which  the  words  express.  ...  It  is  related  of  Gretry, 
that  he  amused  himself  by  noting  as  exactly  as  possible  the 


298  RESPIEATION. 

"Bonjour,  monsieur!"  (Good-day,  sir!)  of  the  persons  who 
visited  him ;  and  these  words  expressed  by  their  intonation,  in 
fact,  the  most  opposite  sentiments,  in  spite  of  the  constant  iden- 
tity of  the  literal  sense. 

Speech,  without  a  Tongue.— De  Jussieu  relates  that  he  saw  a 
girl  fifteen  years  old,  in  Lisbon,  who  was  born  without  a 
tongue,  and  yet  who  spoke  so  distinctly  ?<?  not  to  excite  in  the 
minds  of  those  who  listened  to  her  the  least  suspicion  of  the 
absence  of  that  organ. 

The  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London  (1742)  con- 
tain an  account  of  a  woman  who  had  not  the  slightest  vestige 
of  a  tongue,  but  who  could,  notwithstanding,  drink,  eat,  and 
speak  as  well  and  as  distinctly  as  any  one,  and  even  articulate 
the  words  in  singing.  Other  instances  have  been  known  w,here 
individuals,  after  losing  a  portion  of  the  tongue  by  accident  or 
disease,  have  again  been  able  to  speak  after  a  longer  or  shorter 
period. — LE  PILEUR. 

Stimulants  and  the  Voice. — "The  Drinker's  Throat"  is  a 
recognized  pathological  condition,  and  the  Germans  have  a 
popular  phrase,  "He  drinks  his  throat  away."  Isambert  has 
pointed  out  the  directly  local  irritant  effect  of  both  alcohol  and 
tobacco  on  the  throat,  and  also  the  mode  by  which  these  agents, 
on  absorption  into  the  system,  re-manifest  their  presence  by 
predisposing  to  local  pharyngeal  inflammations.  Dr.  Krishaber 
affirms:  "It  is  generally  admitted  that  alcoholic  beverages  and 
tobacco  irritate  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  throat,  directly 
affect  the  voice,  and  leave  on  it  ineffaceable  traces.  We  hold 
with  equal  certainty  that  tea  and  coffee,  although  not  directly 
affecting  the  voice,  do  so  indirectly  by  acting  on  the  nervous 
system,  and  through  it  the  vocal  organs,  as  well  as  by  some 
general  nervous  derangement  not  very  pronounced,  but  great 
enough  to  deprive  the  singer  of  the  full  powers  and  capabilities 
of  his  voice." 

Dr.  Mackenzie  says :  "  The  influence  of  the  general  health 
upon  the  voice  is  very  marked.  Alcohol  and  tobacco  should 
never  be  used.  The  hoarse  tones  of  the  confirmed  votary  of 
Bacchus  are  due  to  chronic  inflammation  of  the  lining  mem- 
brane of  the  larynx ;  the  originally  smooth  surface  being  rough- 
ened and  thickened  by  the  irritation  of  alcohol,  the  vocal  cords 


ABDOMINAL     RESPIRATION.  299 

have  less  freedom  of  movement,  and  their,  vibrations  are 
blurred,  or  rather  muffled,  by  the  unevenness  of  their  contigu- 
ous edges. " 

A  young  American  lady  of  marked  musical  gifts  once  asked 
Adelina  Patti's  advice  upon  preparing  for  the  stage.  She  found 
the  great  singer  wrapped  in  furs,  although  the  weather  was  not 
severe.  After  hearing  her  visitor,  Patti  replied:  "Are  you 
willing  to  give  up  every  thing  for  your  art?  If  you  wish  to 
succeed,  you  must  learn  to  eat  moderately,  take  no  stimulants 
— not  even  tea  or  coffee — keep  as  regular  hours  as  possible  con- 
sistent with  your  public  appearance,  and  even  deny  yourself  the 
luxury  of  friends.  When  you  hear  of  a  great  vocalist  giving 
extravagant  wine-suppers,  you  may  be  sure  that  the  singer  herT 
self  takes  nothing.  To  be  a  successful  artiste  you  must  be 
married,  soul  and  body,  to  your  art."  Like  the  young  man  to 
whom  Christ  spake,  the  young  woman  "went  away  sorrowful," 
and,  balancing  the  terms,  concluded  to  forego  the  contest. 
\f  Abdominal  Respiration  (p.  81). — It  has  often  been  stated 
that  the  respiration  of  woman  differs  from  that  of  man,  in 
being  limited  almost  entirely  to  the  chest.  In  order  to  investi- 
gate this  subject  scientifically,  Dr.  Mays,  of  Philadelphia,  de- 
vi^ed  an  ingenious  instrument  for  examining  the  respiration  of 
the  native  Indian  girls  in  the  Lincoln  Institution.  The  girls  had 
not  yet  been  subjected  to  the  restrictions  of  civilized  dress.  He 
says: 

' '  In  all,  I  examined  the  movements  of  eighty-two  chests,  and 
in  each  case  took  an  abdominal  and  a  costal  tracing.  The  girls 
were  partly  pure  and  partly  mixed  with  white  blood,  and  their 
ages  ranged  from  between  ten  and  twenty  years.  Thus  there 
were  thirty-three  full-blooded  Indians,  five  one  fourth,  thirty-five 
one  half,  and  two  three  fourths  white.  Seventy-Jive  showed  a 
decided  abdominal  type  of  breathing,  three  a  costal  type,  and 
three  in  which  both  were  about  even.  Those  who  showed  the 
costal  type,  or  a  divergence  from  the  abdominal  type,  came 
from  the  more  civilized  tribes,  like  the  Mohawks  and  Chippe- 
was,  and  were  either  one  half  or  three  foitrths  white;  while  in 
no  single  instance  did  a  full-blooded  Indian  girl  possess  this 
type  of  breathing. 

"  From  these  observations  it  obviously  follows  that,  so  far 


300  RESPIRATION. 

as  the  Indian  is  concerned,  the  abdominal  is  the  orig'nal  type 
of  respiration  in  both  male  and  female,  and  that  the  costal  type 
in  the  civilized  female  is  developed  through  the  constricting  in- 
fluence of  dress  around  the  abdomen.  While  these  tracings 
were  taken  an  incident  occurred  which  demonstrated  that  ab- 
dominal constriction  could  modify  the  movements  of  the  thorax 
during  respiration.  At  my  first  visit  to  the  institution  I  obtained 
an  exceptional  costal  type  of  respiration  from  a  full-blooded 
Indian  girl.  At  my  next  visit  I  concluded  to  repeat  this  obser- 
vation, and  found  that,  contrary  to  my  instructions  concerning 
loose  clothing,  etc.,  this  girl  at  my  first  visit  had  worn  three 
tight  belts  around  her  abdomen.  After  these  were  removed  she 
gave  the  abdominal  type  of  breathing,  which  is  characteristic 
of  nearly  all  the  Indian  girls." 

To  us  these  facts  are  invaluable.  It  shows  the  faulty  con- 
struction of  modern  female  dress,  which  restricts  the  motion  of 
abdominal  respiration.  It  explains  why,  as  experience  has  taught 
us,  it  is  necessary  to  restore  this  abdominal  rhythm,  by  proper 
movements,  in  order  permanently  to 'cure  the  affections  of  the 
lower  portion  of  the  trunk.  It  demonstrates  conclusively  that 
woman's  dress,  to  be  injurious,  needs  only  to  interfere  with  the 
proper  motion  of  respiration,  even  though  it  exercises  not  the 
slightest  compression. — Health  Record. 

The  Germ  Theory  of  Disease  (p.  86).—  What  are  Disease 
Germs?  —  Microscopical  investigation  has  revealed  throughout 
Nature,  in  the  air,  in  water — especially  when  it  contains  organic 
matter,  and  even  within  the  bodies  of  persons  and  animals, 
myriads  of  infinitesimal  active  organisms  which  live,  multiply, 
and  die  in  endless  succession.  These  have  been  named  bacteria 
(bacterium,  a  rod,  so  called  from  the  general  rod-shape  first  ob- 
served), and  also  microbes  (microbe,  a  small  living  object). 
Some  investigators  apply  the  latter  term  as  a  general  one,  lim- 
iting the  former  to  such  microbes  as  are  believed  to  be  special 
disease-producers.  The  "Germ  Theory"  teaches  that  the  seeds 
or  spores  of  bacteria,  floating  in  the  air  we  breathe  or  in  the 
water  we  drink,  are  taken  into  our  bodies  where,  under  condi- 
tions favorable  to  their  growth,  they  develop,  multiply,  and, 
each  after  its  own  species,  produce  distinctive  evil  results. — 
Thus,  according  to  this  theory,  there  are  special  -varieties  of 


THE     GERM     THEORY     OF     DISEASE.  301 

microbes  that  cause,  respectively,  diphtheria,  erysipelas,  scarla- 
tina, cholera,  etc. — One  of  the  most  common  microbes  in  nature 
is  the  bacterium  of  putrefaction,  found  every-where  in  decaying 
organic  matter.* 

By  the  species  of  microbes  called  ferments  all  fermented 
liquors  are  artificially  produced  (see  p.  132) ;  these  also  cause  the 
"rising"  of  bread. — These  wonderful  little  existences  are  thus 
made  to  perform  an  important  part  in  the  economy  of  Nature. 
"  Nourished  at  the  expense  of  putrefying  organic  matter,  they 
reduce  its  complex  constituents  into  soluble  mineral  substances, 
which  they  return  to  the  soil  to  serve  afresh  for  the  nourish- 
ment of  similar  plants.  Thus  they  clear  the  surface  of  the  earth 
from  dead  bodies  and  foecal  matter,  and  from  all  the  useless 
substances  which  are  the  refuse  of  life ;  and  thus  they  unite 
animals  and  plants  in  an  endless  chain." — TROUESSART. 

How  Disease  Germs  Grow.  —Experiments  having  shown  that 
no  life  is  known  to  spring  from  inanimate  matter,  we  may  rea- 
sonably suppose  that  just  as  wheat  does  not  grow  except  from 
seed,  so  no  disease  occurs  without  some  disease  germ  to  produce 
it.  Then,  again,  we  may  logically  assume  that  each  disease  is 
due  to  the  development  of  a  particular  kind  of  germ.  If  we 
plant  small-pox  germs,  we  do  not  reap  a  crop  of  scarlatina  or 
measles ;  but,  just  as  wheat  springs  from  wheat,  each  disease 
has  its  own  distinctive  germs.  Each  comes  from  a  parent  stock, 
and  has  existed  somewhere  previously.  .  .  .  Under  ordinary 
circumstances,  these  germs,  though  nearly  always  present,  are 
comparatively  few  in  number,  and  in  an  extremely  dry  and  in- 
durated state.  Hence,  they  may  frequently  enter  our  bodies  with- 
out meeting  with  the  conditions  essential  to  their  growth ;  for 

*  This  is  the  microbe  found  in  impure  water.  If  we  take  half  a  glass 
of  spring  or'  river  water,  and  leave  it  uncovered  for  a  few  days,  we  shall 
observe  upon  it  a  thin  coating  of  what  appears  to  be  a  fine  dust.  Place,  now, 
a  drop  of  this  dusty  water  under  a  cover-glass,  and  examine  it  under  a  mi- 
croscope with  a  magnifying  power  of  about  five  hundred  diameters.  The 
revelation  is  astonishing.  "  The  whole  field  of  the  microscope  is  in  motion ; 
hundreds  of  bacteria,  resembling  minute  -transparent  worms,  are  swimming 
in  every  direction  with  an  undulatory  motion  like  that  of  an  eel  or  snake. 
Some  are  detached,  others  united  in  pairs,  others  in  chains  or  chaplets  or 
cylindrical  rods.  .  .  .  All  these  forms  represent  the  different  transfor- 
mations of  Bacterium  tenno,  or  the  microbe  of  putrefaction.  Those  which 
are  dead  appear  as  small,  rigid,  and  immovable  rods."— TROUESSART. 


302  RESPIRATION. 

experiments  have  shown  that  it  is  very  difficult  to  moisten  them, 
and  till  they  are  moistened,  they  do  not  begin  to  develop.  In  a 
healthy  system  they  remain  inactive.  But  any  thing  tending  to 
weaken  or  impair  the  bodily  organs,  furnishes  favorable  condi- 
tions, and  thus  epidemics  almost  always  originate  and  are  most 
fatal  in  those  quarters  of  our  great  cities  where  dirt,  squalor, 
and  foul  air  render  sound  health  almost  an  impossibility.  .  .  . 
Having  once  got  a  beginning,  epidemics  rapidly  spread.  The 
germs  are  then  sent  into  the  air  in  great  numbers,  and  in  a 
moist  state ;  and  the  probabilities  of  their  entering,  and  of  their 
establishing  themselves  even  in  healthy  bodies,  are  vastly  in- 
creased. .  .  .  Climate  and  the  weather  have  also  much  influence 
on  the  vitality  of  these  germs.  Cold  is  a  preventive  against 
some  diseases,  heat  against  others.  Tyndall  found  that  sunlight 
greatly  retarded  and  sometimes  entirely  prevented  putrefaction ; 
while  dirt  is  always  favorable  to  the  growth  and  development 
of  germs.  Sunshine  and  cleanliness  are  undoubtedly  the  best  and 
cheapest  preventives  against  disease. —  "Disease  Germs,"  Cham- 
bers' Jowrnal. 

You  know  the  exquisitely  truthful  figures  employed  in  the 
New  Testament  regarding  leaven.  A  particle  hid  in  three  meas- 
ures of  meal  leavens  it  all.  A  little  leaven  leaveneth  the  whole 
lump.  In  a  similar  manner  a  particle  of  contagium  spreads 
through  the  human  body,  and  may  be  so  multiplied  as  to  strike 
down  whole  populations.  Consider  the  effect  produced  upon  the 
system  by  a  microscopic  quantity  of  the  virus  of  small-pox. 
That  virus  is  to  all  intents  and  purposes  a  seed.  It  is  sown  as 
leaven  is  sown,  it  grows  and  multiplies  as  leaven  grows  and 
multiplies,  and  it  always  reproduces  itself.  .  .  .  Contagia  are 
living  things,  which  demand  certain  elements  of  life,  just  as 
inexorably  as  trees,  or  wheat,  or  barley ;  and  it  is  not  difficult 
to  see  that  a  crop  of  a  given  parasite  may  so  far  use  up  a  con- 
stituent existing  in  small  quantities  in  the  body,  but  essential  in 
the  growth  of  the  parasite,  as  to  render  the  body  unfit  for  the 
production  of  a  second  crop.  The  soil  is  exhausted ;  and  until 
the  lost  constituent  is  restored,  the  body  is  protected  from  any 
further  attack  from  the  same  disorder.  To  exhaust  a  soil,  how- 
ever, a  parasite  less  vigorous  and  destructive  than  the  really 
virulent  one  may  suffice ;  and  if,  after  having,  by  means  of  a 


THE     GERM     THEORY     OF     DISEASE.  303 

feebler  organism,  exhausted  the  soil  without  fatal  result,  the 
most  highly  virulent  parasite  be  introduced  into  the  system,  it 
will  prove  powerless.  This,  in  the  language  of  the  germ  theory, 
is  the  whole  secret  of  vaccination. — TYNDALL. 

Disease  Germs  Contained  in  Atmospheric  Dust. — Take  the 
extracted  juice  of  beef  or  mutton,  so  prepared  as  to  be  perfectly 
transparent,  and  entirely  free  from  the  living  germs  of  bacteria. 
Into  the  clear  liquid  let  fall  the  tiniest  drop  of  an  infusion 
charged  witlT  the  bacteria  of  putrefaction.  Twenty-four  hours 
subsequently,  the  clear  extract  will  be  found  muddy  throughout, 
the  turbidity  being  due  to  swarms  of  bacteria  generated  by  the 
drop  with  which  the  infusion  was  inoculated.  At  the  same  time 
the  infusion  will  have  passed  from  a  state  of  sweetness  to  a  state 
of  putridity.  Let  a  drop  similar  to  that  which  has  produced 
this  effect  fall  into  an  open  wound :  the  juices  of  the  living 
body  nourish  the  bacteria  as  the  beef  or  mutton  juice  nourished 
them,  and  you  have  putrefaction  produced  within  the  system. 
The  air,  as  I  have  said,  is  laden  with  floating  matter  which, 
when  it  falls  upon  the  wound,  acts  substantially  like  the  drop. 
...  A  few  years  ago  I  was  bathing  in  an  Alpine  stream,  and, 
returning  to  my  clothes  from  the  cascade  which  had  been  my 
shower-bath,  I  slipped  upon  a  block  of  granite,  the  sharp  crys- 
tals of  which  stamped  themselves  into  my  naked  shin.  The 
wound  was  an  awkward  one,  but,  being  in  vigorous  health  at 
the  time,  I  hoped  for  a  speedy  recovery.  Dipping  a  clean  pocket- 
handkerchief  into  the  stream,  I  wrapped  it  round  the  wound, 
limped  home,  and  remained  for  four  or  five  days  quietly  in  bed. 
There  was  no  pain,  and  at  the  end  of  this  time  I  thought  my- 
self quite  fit  to  quit  my  room.  The  wound,  when  uncovered, 
was  found  perfectly  clean,  uninflamed,  and  entirely  free  from 
pus.  Placing  over  it  a  bit  of  gold-beater's-skin,  T  walked  about 
all  day.  Toward  evening,  itching  and  heat  were  felt ;  a  large 
accumulation  of  pus  followed,  and  I  was  forced  to  go  to  bed 
again.  The  water-bandage  was  restored,  but  it  was  powerless 
to  check  the  action  now  set  up  ;  arnica  was  applied,  but  it  made 
matters  worse.  The  inflammation  increased  alarmingly,  until 
finally  I  was  ignobly  carried  on  men's  shoulders  down  the 
mountain,  and  transported  to  Geneva,  where,  thanks  to  the 
kindness  of  friends,  I  was  immediately  placed  in  the  best 


304  RESPIRATION. 

medical  hands.  On  the  morning  after  my  arrival  in  Geneva.. 
Dr.  G-autier  discovered  an  abscess  in  my  instep,  at  a  distance 
of  five  inches  from  the  wound.  The  two  were  connected  by  a 
channel,  or  sinus,  as  it  is  technically  called,  through  which  he 
was  able  to  empty  the  abscess  without  the  application  of  the 
lance. 

By  what  agency  was  that  channel  formed— what  was  it  that 
thus  tore  asunder  the  sound  tissue  of  my  instep,  and  kept  me 
for  six  weeks  a  prisoner  in  bed?  In  the  very  room  where  the 
water-dressing  had  been  removed  from  my  wound  and  the  gold- 
beater's-skin  applied  to  it,  I  opened  this  year  a  number  of 
tubes,  containing  perfectly  clear  and  sweet  infusions  of  fish, 
flesh,  and  vegetable.  These  hermetically-sealed  infusions  had 
been  exposed  for  weeks,  both  to  the  sun  of  the  Alps  and  to  the 
warmth  of  a  kitchen,  without  showing  the  slightest  turbidity  or 
signs  of  life.  But  two  days  after  they  were  opened,  the  greater 
number  of  them  swarmed  with  the  bacteria  of  putrefaction,  the 
germs  of  which  had  been  contracted  from  the  dust-laden  air  of 
the  room.  And,  had  the  pus  from  my  abscess  been  examined, 
my  memory  of  its  appearance  leads  me  to  infer  that  it  would 
have  been  found  equally  swarming  with  these  bacteria — that  it 
was  their  germs  which  got  into  my  incautiously-opened  wound. 
They  were  the  subtile  workers  that  burrowed  down  my  shin, 
dug  the  abscess  in  my  instep,  and  produced  effects  which  might 
weil  have  proved  fatal  to  me.— TYNDALL. 

^  Disease  Germs  Carried  in  Soiled  Clothing  (p.  89). — The 
conveyance  of  cholera  germs  by  bodies  of  men  moving  along 
the  lines  of  human  communication,  without  necessarily  affecting 
the  individuals  who  transport  them,  is  now  easy  to  understand  ; 
for  it  is  well  established  that  clothes  or  linen  soiled  by  cholera 
patients  may  not  only  impart  the  germs  with  which  they  are 
contaminated  to  those  who  handle  them  when  fresh,  but  that, 
after  having  been  dried  and  packed,  they  may  infect  persons  at 
any  distance  who  incautiously  unfold  them.  Thus,  while  the 
nurses  of  cholera  patients  may,  with  proper  precautions,  enjoy 
an  absolute  immunity  from  attack,  the  disease  germs  may  be 
introduced  into  new  localities  without  any  ostensible  indication 
of  their  presence.  It  is  obvious  that  the  only  security  against 
such  introduction  consists  in  the  destruction  or  thorough  disin- 


THE     SANITARY     HOME.  305 

fection  of  every  scrap  of  clothing  or  linen  which  has  been 
about  the  person  of  a  cholera  patient. — DR.  CARPENTER. 

I  have  known  scarlet  fever  to  be  carried  by  the  clothing  of 
a  nurse  into  a  healthy  family,  and  communicate  the  disease  to 
every  member  of  the  family.  I  have  known  cholera  to  be 
communicated  by  the  clothes  of  the  affected  person  to  the 
women  engaged  in  washing  the  clothes.  I  have  known  small- 
pox conveyed  by  clothes  that  had  been  made  in  a  room  where 
the  tailor  had  by  his  side  sufferers  from  the  terrible  malady. 
I  have  seen  the  new  cloth,  out  of  which  was  to  come  the  riding- 
habit  for  some  innocent  child  to  rejoice  in  as  she  first  wore  it, 
undergo  the  preliminary  duty  of  forming  part  of  the  bed-cloth- 
ing of  another  child  stricken  down  with  fever.  Lastly,  I  have 
known  scarlet  fever,  small-pox,  typhus,  and  cholera,  communi- 
cated by  clothing  contaminated  in  the  laundry. — DR.  RICHARDSON. 

The  Sanitary  Home  (see  p.  94).— 1.  The  Site.—  First  and 
foremost  of  all  the  things  you  are  to  consider,  is  the  healthful- 
ness  of  a  situation.  The  brightest  house  and  cheeriest  outlook 
in  nature  will  be  made  somber  by  the  constant  presence  of  a 
doctor,  and  the  wandering  around  of  an  unseen,  but  ever  felt, 
specter  in  the  shape  of  miasm.  .  .  .  Malaria— malus,  bad ; 
aria,  air — means,  in  its  common  definition,  simply  bad  air. 
Miasma  is  its  synonym, — infecting  effluvia  floating  in  the  air. 
Because,  as  everybody  knows,  certain  places  have  always  chills 
and  fever  associated  with  them,  and  other  places  have  not,  it 
follows  that  between  such  places  there  is  some  fact  of  differ- 
ence ;  this  fact  is  the  presence  of  miasm,  a  cause  of  disease, 
having  a  signification  associative  with  the  locality.  .  .  . 

Vegetation,  heat,  and  moisture :  these  are  the  three  active 
agents  in  the  production  of  miasma,  to  which  a  fourth  is  to  be 
added,  in  the  influence  of  non-drainage,  either  by  the  way  of 
the  atmosphere  or  running  water.  The  strongest  example  of  a 
malarious  locality  one  might  make  would  be  in  suggesting  a 
marshy  valley  in  a  tropical  climate,  so  overrun  with  fixed  water 
as  to  destroy  a  prolific  vegetation,  yet  not  covering  it  enough 
to  protect  the  garbage  from  the  putrefying  influences  of  the 
sun ;  this  valley,  in  turn,  so  environed  with  hills  as  to  shut  off 
a  circulation  of  air.  .  .  .  Ground  newly  broken  is  not  unapt  to 
generate  miasm.  This  results  from  the  sudden  exposure  of 


306  EESPIEATION. 

long-buried  vegetable  matter  to  the  influences  of  moisture  and 
heat.  ...  It  may  readily  be  conceived  that  malarious  situa- 
tions exist  where  the  miasm  is  not  sufficient  in  quantity  to  pro- 
duce the  effects  of  intermittent  or  bilious  fever,  yet  where  there 
is  quite  enough  of  it  to  keep  a  man  feeling  good  for  nothing, — 
he  is  not  sick,  but  he  is  never  well.  I  know  of  one  country 
seat  of  this  kind,  where  forty  thousand  dollars  would  not  pay 
for  the  improvements  put  upon  it,  and  where,  I  am  free  to  de- 
clare, I  would  not  think  of  living,  even  if,  as  an  inducement,  a 
free  gift  were  made  to  me  of  the  place.  .  .  .  Besides  miasm, 
there  are  other  atmospheric  associations  to  be  considered.  I  re- 
call this  moment  a  distillery,  where  attempt  was  made  to  get 
clear  of  the  mash  by  throwing  it  into  a  running  stream,  with 
the  anticipation  of  its  being  carried  to  the  river,  but  where,  on 
the  contrary,  it  became  a  stagnant  putrescent  mass,  impregnat- 
ing the  air  for  miles  with  its  unendurable  odor,  and  inducing 
such  a  typhoid  tendency  that  half  the  country-side  were  down 
with  fever.  .  .  .  There  are,  again,  situations  where  the  filth 
and  debris  of  sewage  exercise  a  poisoning  influence  on  the  sur- 
rounding atmosphere.  This  has  its  principal  application  to  the 
neighborhood  of  cities  and  towns  drained  into  adjoining  streams. 
London  and  the  Thames  furnish  a  notable  illustration.  A  cove, 
attractive  as  it  is,  may  prove  a  receptacle  for  the  accumulation 
of  dead  fish  and  other  offal,  which  shall  make  untenable  the 
charming  cottage  upon  the  bank.  A  deep  cove  has  rarely 
healthy  surroundings,  the  circulation  of  its  water  being  too 
sluggish  to  insure  freshness  and  vitality.  Water,  like  blood,  to 
be  healthy,  must  be  in  a  state  of  continuous  movement. 

A  non-observant  man,  purchasing  a  beautiful  stream,  may 
be  completely  disappointed  by  finding  that  the  opacity  of  its 
water  depends  upon  a  factory,  of  which  he  had  never  so  much 
as  heard ;  he  may  not  let  his  children  bathe  in  it,  for  he  may 
well  fear  for  them  the  fate  of  the  fish  he  so  plentifully  finds 
lying  dead  upon  the  shore.  A  poisoned  rural  stream  is  as  sad 
a  sight  as  it  has  grown  to  be  a  common  one.  Always,  before 
buying  water,  know  what  there  is  up  stream,  or  what  there  is 
likely  to  be. 

Never  buy  a  country  house  without  seeing  to  it  that  the 
foundation  stands  upon  a  higher  level  than  some  channel 


THE     SANITARY     HOME.  307 

which  may  drain  it,  and  this,  by  the  way,  is  not  to  consider 
alone  the  dry  summer  day  on  which  you  go  first  to  visit  the 
place ;  you  are  to  think  of  the  winter  and  spring.  Look  to  it 
that  no  excess  of  water  shall  be  able  to  drown  you  out ;  some 
places,  which  in  dry  weather  are  glorious,  are,  in  winter  and 
spring,  ankle-deep  in  slush  and  mire,  and  every  thing  about 
them  is  as  wet  as  a  soaked  board.  Open  the  front  door  of  such 
a  house,  and  a  chill  strikes  you  instantly.  A  fire  must  be  kept 
the  year  round,  or  otherwise  you  live  in  the  moisture  of  a 
vault.  Places  there  are  of  this  class  where  the  question  of  the 
water  from  the  kitchen-pump  comes  to  absorb  the  attention  of 
the  whole  household. 

No  shade  is  an  abomination.  A  bilious  fever  fattens  in  the 
sun  as  does  miasm  in  a  marshy  valley.  Too  much  shade,  on 
the  contrary,  and  too  near  the  house,  is  equally  of  ill  import ; 
it  keeps  things  damp,  and  dampness  is  a  breeder  of  pestilence. 
An  atmosphere  confined  about  a  house  by  too  dense  foliage  is, 
like  the  air  of  an  unventilated  room,  not  fit  for  practical  pur- 
poses. The  sporadic  poisons  have  an  intimate  relationship  with 
dampness ;  miasm  lives  in  it  as  does  a  snail  in  his  shell.  Be- 
sides this,  it  shuts  out  the  cool  breath  of  the  summer  nights, 
and  makes  restless  swelterers  where  even  a  blanket  might  be 
enjoyed. — DR.  JOHN  DARBY,  Odd  Hours  of  a  Physician. 

2.  The  House. — So  construct  the  dwelling  from  foundation 
to  roof  that  no  dampness  can  result.  Give  to  the  cellar  dry 
walls,  a  cement  floor,  and  windows  enough  to  insure  constant 
currents  of  air.  Insist  upon  such  a  system  of  immediate  and 
perfect  sewerage  as  shall  render  contamination  impossible.  If 
"modern  improvements"  are  afforded,  see  that  the  plumbing 
embraces  the  latest  and  most  scientific  sanitary  inventions.  Do 
not  economize  on  this  point ;  health,  perhaps  life,  depends  upon 
the.  perfect  working  of  the  various  traps.  Having  employed 
the  most  skilled  and  intelligent  plumbers,  overlook  their  work 
so  that  you  may  fully  understand  the  principle  applied. 

Provide  for  ample  ventilation  in  every  apartment,  above 
and  below.  Let  the  sleeping-rooms  be  above-stairs,  and  fur- 
nished with  appliances  for  moderate  warmth  in  winter.  Treat 
yourself  and  your  family  to  as  many  fire-places  as  possible.  In- 
dulge in  a  spacious  piazza,  so  placed  that  it  will  not  cut  off  the 


308  RESPIRATION. 

light  from  the  family  sitting-room,  and,  if  you  can,  include  a 
balcony  or  two,  large  enough  to  hold  a  chair  and  a  table,  or  a 
work-basket.  Remember  that  a  house  is  for  convenience "  and 
protection  only  when  you  can  not  be  in  the  open  air. 

3.  The  Kitchen  and  the  Dust-heap. — Removal  of  Household 
Refuse. — It  has  to  be  assumed,  especially  where  servants  are 
not  carefully  overlooked,  that  the  dust-heap  of  most  houses  will 
contain  more  or  less  decomposing  organic  matter,  such  as  bits 
of  meat,  scales  and  refuse  of  fish,  tea  and  coffee  grounds,  and 
the  peelings  of  vegetables,  which,  though  quite  out  of  place  in 
the  ash-heap,  are  apt  surreptitiously  to  be  thrown  upon  it. 
Such  matter  soon  becomes  offensive  and  even  dangerous,  and  a 
few  days'  retention  of  it  in  warm  weather  constitutes  a  legal 
nuisance.  Household  refuse  should  be  carted  away  as  often  as 
once  in  two  days;  in  extreme  hot  weather,  daily.  "Where  it  is 
inexpedient  to  remove  it  frequently,  it  should  be  kept  covered 
to  the  depth  of  two  or  three  inches  with  a  layer  of  powdered 
charcoal,  or  freshly-burnt  lime,  or,  at  least,  of  clear  dry  earth. 
All  soil  which  has  become  foul  by  the  soakage  of  decaying  or 
vegetable  matter  should  be  similarly  treated.  The  refuse  heap 
should  be  protected  from  rain,  and  liquids  should  never  be 
thrown  upon  it.  Where  obnoxious  matter  has  been  allowed  to 
accumulate,  its  disturbance  for  removal  should  be  conducted 
with  special  precaution,  both  on  account  of  its  temporary  offen- 
siveness  of  odor  and  the  more  serious  results  which  may  follow. 
It  can  not  be  too  distinctly  understood  that  cleanliness,  ventila- 
tion, and  dryness  are  the  best  of  all  deodorizers.  One  of  the 
first  of  household  regulations  should  be  to  see  that  no  unsani- 
tary rubbish  remains  in  or  about  the  dwelling.  Keep  the  dust- 
heap  itself  at  the  farthest  practicable  remove  from  the  house. 
Sow  grass-seed  plentifully  upon  the  back  premises,  and  induce 
tidiness  in  the  domestics  by  having  the  kitchen  door  open  upon 
a  well-kept  lawn. 

/  Burning  of  Garbage. — The  easiest,  quickest,  and  most  sani- 
tary method  of  disposing  of  household  garbage  is  to  burn  it- 
This  plan  has  been  officially  recommended  by  the  Boards  of 
Health  in  various  cities.  Many  housekeepers  have  adopted  it, 
and  find  it  so  practicable  that  in  New  York  City  there  has  be- 
come a  marked  decrease  in  the  amount  of  household  refuse 


THE     SANITARY     HOME.  309 

collected  by  the  scavengers.  If,  after  every  meal,  the  draughts  of 
the  range  be  opened,  and  all  waste  matter  be  deposited  within, 
a  few  moments,  or  at  most,  a  half  hour,  will  effectually  dispose 
of  it,  and  prevent  all  the  dangers  that  arise  from  its  retention 
and  accumulation.  In  the  country,  where  there  is  plenty  of 
ground,  nearly  all  rubbish  can  be  destroyed  in  this  way  and  by 
outside  fires,  with  the  additional  advantage  that  the  ashes  which 
are  obtained  are  valuable  as  a  garden  fertilizer. — E.  B.  S. 

4.  The  Sewers  and  Drains. — How  to  keep  out  Sewer  Air. — 
The  most  perfectly  flushed  sewers  that  are  made,  under  the 
latest  and  fullest  sanitary  light,  must,  owing  to  the  constant 
entrance  of  greasy  and  other  adhesive  material,  contain  more  or 
less  of  particles  that  "stick,"  and  also  more  or  less  of  fungi  and 
mold ;  so  that  here,  shut  away  from  light  and  air,  goes  on 
the  peculiar  fermentation  that  fits  it  for  the  soil  or  habitat  of 
the  malarial  germ.  These  germs,  the  soil  once  ready,  take 
possession  and  multiply,  whether  that  soil  be  a  sewer  or  the 
blood  of  a  person  who  sits  calmly  unconscious  in  a  gorgeous 
chamber  above,  with  a  small  continuation  of  the  sewer  extend- 
ing untrapped  up  to  his  wash-bowl. — DR.  DERBY. 

Keep  constant  watch  of  your  traps  and  drains.  Cultivate 
the  faculty  of  detecting  sewer  gas  in  the  house.  Always  fear  a 
smell ;  trace  it  to  its  source  and  provide  a  remedy.  At  the 
same  time,  bear  in  mind  that  it  is  not  always  the  foul  smell  that 
is  most  dangerous.  There  is  a  close,  sweet  odor  often  present 
in  bath-rooms,  and  about  drains,  that  is  deadly  as  the  Upas 
tree.  Bad  air  from  neglected  drains  causes  not  only  fevers, 
dysentery,  and  diphtheria,  but  asthma  and  other  chronic  disor- 
ders. Illuminating  gas,  escaping  from  pipes  and  prevented  from 
exuding  by  frozen  earth,  has  been  known  to  pass  sidewise  for 
some  distance  into  houses.  Thus  also  the  air  from  cess-pools 
and  porous  or  broken  drains  finds  its  way,  when  an  examination 
of  the  household  entrance  to  the  drain  fails  to  reveal  the  cause 
of  an  existing  effluvia.  But,  however  bad  the  drain  may  be 
outside  the  house,  there  is  little  to  fear  provided  the  gas  can 
escape  externally.  Every  main  drain  should  have  a  ventilating 
pipe  carried  from  it  directly  outside  the  house  to  the  top  of  the 
highest  chimney.  The  soil-pipe  inside  the  house  should  be  carried 
up  through  the  roof  and'  be  open  at  the  top. 


310  RESPIRATION. 

Digging  for  drains  or  other  purposes  should  not  be  allowed 
when  the  mercury  stands  above  60° ;  but  if,  as  in  repairs  of 
pipes,  it  becomes  necessary  to  dig  about  the  house  in  hot 
weather,  let  it  be  done  in  the  middle  of  the  day,  and  replace 
the  turf  as  speedily  as  possible.  If  the  soil  be  damp,  or  the 
district  malarious,  sprinkle  quicklime  upon  the  earth  as  fast  as 
it  is  turned. 

How  to  Clear  Waste-pipes. —  The  "sewer-gas,"  about  which 
so  much  has  been  written,  and  which  is  so  justly  dreaded,  is 
not,  as  many  suppose,  the  exclusive  product  of  the  sewer.  In- 
deed, the  foul  and  dangerous  gases  are  not  only  found  in  the 
sewers  themselves,  but  in  the  unventilated  waste-pipes,  and 
those  which  are  in  process  of  being  clogged  by  the  foul  matter 
passing  through  them.  Any  obstruction  in  the  soil  or  waste- 
pipes  is  therefore  doubly  dangerous,  because  it  may  produce  an 
inflow  of  foul  gas  into  the  pipe,  even  though  the  entrance  to 
the  sewer  itself  has  been  entirely  cut  off. 

In  pipes  leading  from  the  house  to  the  cess-pool,  there  is  a 
constant  accumulation  of  grease.  This  enters  as  a  liquid,  but 
hardens  as  the  water  cools,  and  is  deposited  on  the  bottom  and 
sides  of  the  pipes.  As  these  accumulations  increase,  the  water- 
way is  gradually  contracted,  till  the  pipe  is  closed. 

When  the  pipe  is  entirely  stopped,  or  allows  the  water  to  fall 
away  by  drops  only,  proceed  thus :  Empty  the  pipe  down  to  the 
trap,  as  far  as  practicable,  by  "mopping  up"  with  a  cloth.  If 
the  water  flows  very  slowly,  begin  when  the  pipe  has  at  last 
emptied  itself.  Fill  the  pipe  up  with  potash,  crowding  it  with 
a  stick.  Then  allow  hot  water  to  trickle  upon  the  potash,  or 
pour  the  hot  water  upon  it  in  a  small  stream,  stopping  as  soon 
as  the  pipe  appears  to  be  filled.  As  the  potash  dissolves  and 
disappears,  add  more  water.  At  night  a  little  heap  of  potash 
may  be  placed  over  the  hole,  and  water  enough  poured  on  so 
that  a  supply  of  strong  lye  will  flow  into  the  pipe  during  the 
night. 

Pipes  that  have  been  stopped  for  months  may  be  cleaned 
out  by  this  method,  though  it  may  call  for  three  or  four  pounds 
of  potash.  The  crudest  kind,  however,  appears  to  act  as  well  as 
the  best.  If  the  pipe  is  partially  obstructed,  a  lump  of  crude 
potash  should  be  placed  where  water  will  drip  slowly  upon  it, 


THE     SANITARY     HOME.  311 

and  so  reach  the  pipe.  As  water  comes  in  contact  with  the 
potash,  it  becomes  hot,  thus  aiding  in  dissolving  the  grease. 
Potash,  in  combination  with  grease,  forms  a  ''soft"  or  liquid 
soap,  which  easily  flows  away.  It  is  also  destructive  to  all 
animal  and  most  mineral  matters. 

Some  of  the  most  dangerous  gases  come  from  wash-basin 
pipes,  being,  perhaps,  the  result  of  the  decay  of  the  soap  and 
the  animal  matter  washed  from  the  skin. 

When  a  pipe  is  once  fairly  cleaned  out,  the  potash  should  be 
used  from  time  to  time,  in  order  to  dissolve  the  greasy  deposits 
as  they  form,  and  carry  them  forward  to  the  cess-pool  or  sewer. 
— Artisan. 

What  Came  from  a  Neighbors  Cess-pool. — Keep  watch  not 
only  of  your  own  premises,  but  stand  on  guard  against  those  of 
your  neighbors.  Dr.  Carpenter  cites  a  case  wherein  "  four  mem- 
bers of  a  certain  household  were  attacked  with  typhoid  fever, 
one  of  whom  narrowly  escaped  with  her  life.  The  circumstances 
left  no  doubt  in  the  mind  of  the  attending  physician  that  the 
malady  originated  in  the  opening  of  an  old  cess-pool  belonging 
to  a  neighboring  house,  then  in  course  of  demolition.  The  house 
in  which  the  outbreak  took  place  is  large  and  airy,  and  stands 
by  itself  in  a  most  salubrious  situation.  The  most  careful  ex- 
amination failed  to  disclose  any  defect  either  in  its  drainage  or 
its  water-supply ;  there  was  no  typhoid  in  the  neighborhood ; 
and  the  milk-supply  was  unexceptional.  But  the  neighboring 
house  being  old,  and  having  been  occupied  by  a  school,  its  re- 
moval had  been  determined  on  to  make  way  for  a  house  of 
higher  class ;  and  as  the  offensive  odor  emanating  from  the  un- 
covered cess-pool  was  at  once  perceived  in  the  next  garden,  and 
the  outbreak  of  typhoid  followed  at  the  usual  interval,  the  case 
seems  one  which  admits  of  no  reasonable  question." 

5.  The  Cellar. — A  Typical  Bad  Cellar. — Did  the  reader  ever, 
when  a  child,  see  the  cellar  afloat  at  some  old  home  in  the 
country?  You  creep  part  way  down  the  cellar-stairs  with  only 
the  light  of  a  single  tallow-candle,  and  behold  by  its  dim  glim- 
mer an  expanse  of  dark  water,  boundless  as  the  sea.  On  its 
surface,  in  dire  confusion,  float  barrels  and  boxes,  butter  firkins 
and  wash-tubs,  boards,  planks,  hoops,  and  staves  without  num- 
ber, interspersed  with  apples,  turnips,  and  cabbages,  while  half- 


312  RESPIRATION. 

drowned  rats  and  mice,  scrambling  up  the  stairway  for  dear 
life,  drive  you  affrighted  back  to  the  kitchen.  .  .  .  Now  con- 
sider the  case  of  one  of  these  old  farm-house  cellars  that  has 
been  in  use  fifty  years  or  more.  In  it  have  been  stored  all  the 
potatoes,  turnips,  cabbages,  onions,  and  other  vegetables  for 
family  food.  The  milk  and  cream,  the  pork  and  beef,  and  cider 
and  vinegar,  have  all  met  with  various  accidents,  and  from 
time  to  time  have  had  their  juices,  in  various  stages  of  decay, 
absorbed  by  the  soil  of  the  cellar-bottom.  The  cats  have  slept 
there  to  fight  the  rats  and  the  mice,  who  have  had  their  little 
homes  behind  the  walls  for  half  a  century ;  and  the  sink-spouts 
have  for  the  same  term  poured  into  the  soil  close  by,  their  fra- 
grant fluids.  The  water  rushes  upward  and  sideways  into  the 
cellar,  forming,  with  the  savory  ingredients  at  which  we  have 
delicately  hinted,  a  sort  of  broth,  quite  thin  and  watery  at  first, 
but  growing  thicker  as  the  water  slowly  subsides  and  leaves  its 
grosser  parts  pervading  the  surface  of  the  earth,  walls,  and  par- 
titions. All  this  time  the  air  rushes  in  at  the  openings  of  the 
cellar,  and  presses  constantly  upward,  often  lifting  the  carpets 
from  the  floors,  and  is  breathed  day  and  night  by  all  who  dwell 
in  the  house.  Does  it  require  learned  doctors  or  boards  of 
health  to  inform  any  rational  person  that  these  conditions  are 
unfavorable  to  health?  —  MRS.  PLUNKETT,  Women,  Plumbers, 
and  Doctors. 

>  What  Came  from  a  Crack  in  a  Cellar  Wall.— A.  few  years 
ago  a  Boston  gentleman  inherited  a  house,  situated  on  one  of 
the  most  desirable  streets  of  the  city.  Resolving  to  make  a 
healthy  as  well  as  a  beautiful  home,  he  spent  a  large  sum,  and 
gave  personal  supervision  to  all  the  details  of  an  elaborate 
system  of  plumbing.  He  moved  in.  Imagine  his  grief  and  dis- 
appointment when  member  after  member  of  his  family  suc- 
cumbed to  diphtheria,  and  an  infant  and  a  grown  daughter 
died.  Though  so  deeply  smitten,  he  did  not  lose  his  belief  in 
the  connection  between  cause  and  effect.  He  ordered  a  minute 
investigation  of  the  premises  by  experts.  A  slight  crack,  so 
small  as  to  have  escaped  ordinary  observation,  was  found  in  the 
cellar  wall.  Investigation  of  the  premises  next  door — the  in- 
mates of  which  were  also  suffering  from  diphtheria — showed  a 
choked-up  drain,  which  ought  to  have  connected  with  the  sewer, 


THE     SANITARY     HOME.  313 

but  did  not.  The  filthy  ooze  from  this  was  pouring  out,  just 
where  its  effluvium  and  its  disease-germs  could  pass  without 
any  hindrance  through  the  crack. 

Now  that  it  is  shown  that  gases  pass  through  bricks  and 
many  kinds  of  stone,  it  is  easy  to  see  that  the  sanitary  welfare 
of  one  is  the  sanitary  welfare  of  all.— MRS.  PLUNKETT. 

6.  The  Bedroom. — The  Bed  a  Night  Garment. — There  is  still 
one  of  our  garments  to  be  considered,  which  generally  is  not 
regarded  as  such.  I  mean  the  bed — that  piece  of  clothing  in 
which  we  spend  such  a  great  part  of  our  time. 

The  bed  is  not  only  a  place  of  rest ;  it  is  especially  our 
sleeping-garment,  and  has  often  to  make  up  for  privations  en- 
dured during  the  day  and  the  day's  work,  and  to  give  us 
strength  for  to-morrow.  Like  our  day-garments,  the  bed-cover- 
ing must  be  airy  and  warm  at  the  same  time.  We  warm  the 
bed  by  our  body,  just  as  we  warm  our  clothes,  and  the  bed 
warms  the  air  which  is  continually  flowing  through  it  from 
below,  upward.  The  regulating  strata  must  be  more  powerful  in 
their  action  than  in  our  day-clothes,  because  during  rest  and  sleep 
the  metamorphosis  of  our  tissues  and  the  resulting  heat  become 
less ;  and  because  in  a  horizontal  position  we  lose  more  heat  by 
an  ascending  current  of  air  than  in  a  vertical  position,  where 
the  warm  ascending  current  is  in  more  complete  and  longer 
contact  with  our  upright  body. 

The  warmth  of  the  bed  sustains  the  circulation  in  our  sur- 
face to  a  certain  degree  for  the  benefit  of  our  internal  organs 
at  a  time  when  our  production  of  heat  is  at  its  lowest  ebb. 
Hence  the  importance  of  the  bed  for  our  heat  and  blood  econ- 
omy. Several  days  without  rest  in  a  bed  not  only  make  us 
sensible  of  a  deficiency  in  the  recruiting  of  our  strength,  but 
very  often  produce  quite  noticeable  perturbations  in  our  bodily 
economy,  from  which  the  bed  would  have  protected  us. — DR. 
MAX  VON  PETTENKOFFER. 

Bed  Ventilation. — It  often  happens  that  the  desire  of  the 
energetic  housekeeper  to  have  her  work  done  at  an  early  hour 
in  the  morning,  causes  her  to  leave  one  of  the  most  important 
items  of  neatness  undone.  The  most  effectual  purifying  of  bed 
and  bed-clothes  can  not  take  place,  if  the  proper  time  is  not  al- 
lowed for  the  free  circulation  of  pure  air,  to  remove  all  human 


314  CIRCULATION. 

impurities  which  have  collected  during  the  hours  of  slumber. 
At  least  two  or  three  hours  should  be  allowed  for  the  complete 
removal  of  atoms  of  insensible  perspiration  which  are  absorbed 
by  the  bed.  Every  day  the  airing  should  be  done ;  and,  occa- 
sionally, bedding  constantly  used  should  be  carried  into  the  open 
air,  and  left  exposed  to  the  sun  and  wind  for  half  a  day.— 
Home  and  Health. 

CIRCULATION. 

The  Pulse  (p.  116).— The  pulse  which  is  felt  by  the  finger 
does  not  correspond  precisely  with  the  beat  of  the  heart,  but 
takes  place  a  little  after  it,  and  the  interval  is  longer,  the 
greater  the  distance  of  the  artery  from  the  heart.  The  beat  of 
the  artery  on  the  inner  side  of  the  ankle,  for  example,  is  a 
little  later  than  the  beat  of  the  artery  in  the  temple. — HUXLEY. 

The  pulse  is  increased  by  exertion,  and  thus  is  more  rapid 
in  a  standing  than  in  a  sitting,  and  in  a  sitting  than  in  a  lying 
posture.  It  is  quickened  by  meals,  and  while  varying  thus 
from  time  to  time  during  the  day,  is  on  the  whole  quicker  in 
the  evening  than  in  early  morning.  It  is  said  to  be  quicker  in 
summer  than  in  winter.  Even  independently  of  muscular  exer- 
tion, it  seems  to  be  quickened  by  great  altitude.  Its  rate  is 
also  profoundly  influenced  by  mental  conditions. — FOSTER. 

Circulation  of  Blood  in  the  Brain  (p.  120).— Signer  Mosso, 
who  has  been  engaged  on  the  subject  for  six  years,  has  pub- 
lished some  new  observations  on.  the  different  conditions  of  the 
circulation  of  the  blood  in  the  brain.  He  has  had  the  privilege 
of  observing  three  patients  who  had  holes  in  their  skulls,  per- 
mitting the  examination  of  the  encephalic  movements  and  cir- 
culation. No  part  of  the  body  exhibits  a  pulsation  so  varied  in 
its  form  as  the  brain.  The  pulsation  may  be  described  as  tri- 
cuspid ;  that  is,  it  consists  of  a  strong  beat,  preceded  and  fol- 
lowed by  lesser  beats.-  It  gathers  strength  when  the  brain  is  at 
work,  corresponding  with  the  more  rapid  flow  of  blood  to  the 
organ.  The  increase  in  the  volume  of  the  brain  does  not  de- 
pend upon  any  change  in  the  respiratory  rhythm ;  for,  if  we 
take  the  pulse  of  the  fore-arm  simultaneously  with  that  of  the 
brain,  we  can  not  perceive  that  the  cerebral  labor  exercises  any 


CATAKRHAL     COLDS.  315 

influence  upon  the  fore-arm,  although  the  pulsation  in  the  brain 
may  be  considerably  modified.  The  emotions  have  a  similar 
effect  upon  the  circulation  of  the  brain  to  that  of  cerebral  labor. 
Signor  Mosso  has  also  observed  and  registered  graphically  the 
variations  of  the  cerebral  pulse  during  sleep.  Generally  the 
pulses  of  the  wrist  and  the  brain  vary  oppositely.  At  the  mo- 
ment of  waking,  the  pulse  of  the  wrist  diminishes,  while  that 
of  the  brain  increases.  The  cerebral  pulsations  diminish  as  sleep 
grows  deeper,  and  at  last  become  very  weak.  Outward  excitations 
determine  the  same  modifications  during  sleep  as  in  the  waking 
state,  without  waking  the  sleeper.  A  deep  inspiration  always 
produces  a  diminution  in  the  volume  of  the  brain,  in  conser 
quence,  probably,  of  the  increased  flow  of  blood  into  the  veins 
of  the  thoracic  cavity ;  the  increase  of  volume  in  the  brain, 
when  it  takes  place,  is,  on  the  contrary,  due  to  a  more  abun- 
dant flow  of  arterial  blood  to  the  encephalus. — Popular  Science 
Monthly,  March,  1882. 

Catarrhal  Colds  (p.  130). — I  maintain  that  it  can  be  proved, 
with  as  absolute  certainty  as  any  physiological  fact  admits  of 
being  proved,  that  warm,  vitiated  in-door  air  is  the  cause,  and 
cold  out-door "  air  the  best  cure,  of  catarrh.  .  .  .  Fresh  cold  air 
is  a  tonic  that  invigorates  the  respiratory  organs  when  all  other 
stimulants  fail,  and,  combined  with  arm-exercise  and  certain 
dietetic  alternatives,  it  is  the  best  remedy  for  all  disorders  of 
the  lungs  and  upper  air-passages-.  ...  A  combination  of  the 
three  specifics, — exercise,  abstinence,  and  fresh  air, — will  cure 
the  most  obstinate  cold.  .  .  .  Frost  is  such  a  powerful  disin- 
fectant, that  in  very  cold  nights  the  lung-poisoning  atmosphere 
of  few  houses  can  resist  its  purifying  influence ;  in  spite  of 
padded  doors,  in  spite  of  ' '  weather-strips- "  and  double  windows, 
it  reduces  the  in-door  temperature  enough  to  paralyze  the  float- 
ing disease-germs.  The  penetrative  force  of  a  polar  night-frost 
exercises  that  function  with  such  resistless  vigor  that  it  defies 
the  preventive  measures  of  human  skill ;  and  all  Arctic  trav- 
elers agree  that  among  the  natives  of  Iceland,  Greenland,  and 
Labrador  pulmonary  diseases  are  actually  unknown.  Protracted 
cold  weather  thus  prevents  epidemic  catarrhs,  but  during  the  first 
thaw  Nature  succumbs  to  art :  smoldering  stove  fires  add  their 
fumes  to  the  effluvia  of  the  dormitory,  tight-fitting  doors  and 


316  CIRCULATION. 

windows  exclude  the  means  of  salvation ;  superstition  triumphs ; 
the  lung-poison  operates,  and  the  next  morning  a  snuffling, 
coughing,  and  red-nosed  family  discuss  the  cause  of  their  afflic- 
tion. ...  It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  ' '  colds "  can  be 
propagated  only  by  direct  transmission  or  the  breathing  of  re- 
cently vitiated  air.  Catarrh-germs,  floating  in  the  atmosphere 
of  an  ill-ventilated  bedroom,  may  preserve  their  vitality  for 
weeks  after  the  house  has  been  abandoned  ;  and  the  next  renter 
of  such  a  place  should  not  move  in  till  wide-open  windows  and 
doors  and  a  thorough  draught  of  several  days  have  removed 
every  trace  of  a  " musty"  smell. — DR.  FELIX  L.  OSWALD,  Reme- 
dies of  Nature,  Popular  Science  Monthly,  March,  1884. 

Catching  Cold.— The  phrase  "to  catch  cold,"  so  often  in 
the  mouths  of  physicians  and  patients,  is  a  curious  solecism.  It 
implies  that  the  term  "cold"  denotes  something  positive— a  sort 
of  demon  which  does  not  catch,  but  is  caught  by  the  unfortunate 
victims.  ...  If  most  persons  outside  of  the  medical  profession 
were  to  be  asked  what  they  consider  as  chiefly  to  be  avoided  in 
the  management  of  sick  people,  the  answer  would  probably  be 
"catching  cold."  I  suspect  that  this  question  would  be  answered 
in  the  same  way  by  not  a  few  physicians.  Hence  it  is  that 
sick-rooms  are  poorly  ventilated,  and  patients  are  oppressed  by 
a  superabundance  of  garments  and  bed-clothes.  The  air  which 
patients  are  made  to  breathe,  having  been  already  breathed  and 
rebreathed,  is  loaded  with  pulmonary  exhalations.  Cutaneous 
emanations  are  allowed  to  remain  in  contact  with  the  body,  as 
well  as  to  pervade  the  atmosphere.  Patients  not  confined  to 
the  bed,  especially  those  affected  with  pulmonary  disease,  are 
overloaded  with  clothing,  which  becomes  saturated  with 
perspiration,  and  is  seldom  changed,  for  fear  of  the  dreaded 
"cold."  .  .  . 

A  reform  is  greatly  needed  in  respect  to  "catching  cold." 
Few  diseases  are  referable  to  the  agency  of  cold,  and  even  the 
affection  commonly  called  a  cold  is  generally  caused  by  other 
agencies,  or,  perhaps,  by  a  special  agent,  which  may  prove  to 
be  a  microbe.  Let  the  axiom,  A  fever  patient  never  catches  cold, 
be  reiterated  until  it  becomes  a  household  phrase.  Let  the  re- 
storative influence  of  cool,  fresh,  pure  atmosphere  be  inculcated. 
Let  it  be  understood  that  in  therapeutics,  as  in  hygiene,  the 


THE     WATER     WE     DRINK.  317 

single  word  comfort  embodies  the  principles  which  should  regu- 
late coverings  and  clothing. — AUSTIN  FLINT,  M.D.,  in  a  Lecture 
printed  in  The  New  York  Medical  Journal. 

DIGESTION    AND    FOOD. 

The  Water  We  Drink  (p.  155).— Qualities  of  Pure  Water. 
— "A  good  drinking  water,"  says  Dr.  Simpson  (in  The  Water 
We  Drink),  "should  possess  the  following  physical  characters: 
it  should  be  entirely  free  from  color,  taste,  or  odor ;  it  should, 
moreover,  be  cool,  well  aerated,  soft,  bright,  and  entirely  free 
from  all  deposit.  But  it  should  be  remembered  that  a  water 
having  all  these  characteristics  may  yet  be  more  or  less  polluted 
by  organic  matter,  owing  to  the  proximity  of  drains  and 
sewers.  .  .  .  Disease  has  frequently  been  traced  to  the  use  of 
perfectly  bright  and  clear  water,  where  there  was  no  sediment, 
and  where  the  animal  organic  matter  was  held  in  a  state  of 
solution." 

In  the  case  of  diseases,  such  as  typhoid,  which  attack  the 
stomach,  disease  germs  are  removed  along  with  the  excreta ; 
and  if,  as  is  often  the  case,  the  drainage  of  an  infected  town 
flows  into  a  river,  and  that  river  is  used  in  some  after-portion 
of  its  course  as  a  water-supply,  there  is  great  danger  of  such 
diseases  being  communicated.  For,  however  well  the  water  may 
be  purified  and  filtered,  we  have  no  guarantee  that  it  will  not 
contain  some  of  these  disease  germs,  which  are  so  small  that 
they  pass  through  the  finest  filters.  It  is  in  this  way  that  almost 
all  the  great  cholera  and  typhoid  epidemics  have  spread. — 
Chambers'  Journal, 

Well-water  Often  Dangerous. — A  densely  crowded  population 
soon  impregnates  the  soil  to  some  depth  with  filth,  which  drains 
into  the  water-course  below,  especially  if  such  water  is  near  the 
surface.  This  surface  water  easily  penetrates  a  loosely  walled 
well.  Every  well,  therefore,  should  not  only  be  widely  sepa- 
rated from  barn-yards,  cess-pools,  pens,  sinks,  and  similar  places, 
but  should  be  made  water-tight  with  cement,  so  that  nothing 
can  reach  its  interior  except  water  that  has  been  filtered  through 
dense  beds  of  unpolluted  ground  below.  If  these  precautions 
are  neglected,  the  best  and  deepest  well  may  become  continually 


318  DIGESTION     AND     FOOD. 

contaminated  by  infiltration  from  the  surrounding  surface.  This 
impure  water,  even  when  not  used  for  family  drinking,  is  some- 
times supplied  to  cows,  or  used  for  washing  dairy  pans,  or  em- 
ployed in  diluting  milk  for  the  market,  and  there  are  many 
known  cases  in  which  disease  has  thus  been  disseminated. 
Thus,  an  epidemic  of  typhoid  fever  in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  was 
definitely  traced  to  a  dairy  which  supplied  the  victims  with 
milk.  Upon  investigation  it  was  found  that  a  short  time  before 
there  had  been  a  typhoid  patient  in  the  farm-house,  and  that 
the  well  from  which  water  was  taken  to  wash  the  milk-pans 
had  become  contaminated  with  the  specific  poison  brought  into 
it  from  the  surrounding  drainage. 

All  suspected  water  should  be  thoroughly  boiled  before  using 
it  to  drink.  Some  physicians  insist  that  the  boiling  should  con- 
tinue for  one  or  two  hours  in  order  entirely  to  destroy  the  bac- 
terial germs.  The  heaviness  and  insipidity  incident  to  boiled 
water  may  be  somewhat  relieved  by  afterward  filtering  it.  Fil- 
tering, of  itself,  however,  will  do  little  toward  ridding  the  water 
of  microbes,  which  are  much  too  minute  to  be  arrested  by  the  or- 
dinary apparatus. — When  journeying,  where  one  must  often  take 
a  hasty  meal  at  a  railway  station,  drink  hot  water  in  preference 
to  cold.  A  convenient  portable  filter  may  be  arranged  with  a 
bottle  of  powdered  charcoal,  and  a  piece  of  filtering  paper.  A 
traveler  by  briskly  stirring  a  table-spoonful  of  the  charcoal  into 
a  pint  of  water,  allowing  it  to  stand  five  or  ten  minutes,  and 
then  filtering  it  through  the  paper,  may  venture  to  relieve  his 
thirst  in  almost  any  part  of  the  country. 

Water  an  Absorbent  of  Foul  Gases. — If  a  pitcher  of  water 
be  left  uncovered  in  an  occupied  apartment  for  only  a  few 
hours,  it  will  become  foul  from  the  -absorption  of  the  respired 
and  perspired  gases  in  the  room.  The  colder  the  water,  the 
greater  the  capacity  to  contain  these  gases.  Water  kept  in  a 
room  over  night  is  therefore  unfit  for  drinking,  and  should  not 
be  used  even  to  brush  the  teeth  or  to  gargle  in  the  throat. 

Impure  Ice,  a  Breeder  of  Disease.— We  generally  take  the 
purity  of  our  ice  for  granted,  and,  like  the  alligator  in  the 
bayou,  close  our  mouths  and  swallow  it.  In  the  country,  I  have 
seen  during  the  ice-harvesting  season,  wagon  after  wagon  pass- 
ing me  on  the  road,  laden  with  ice  that  had  been  collected  from 


THE     GLANDULAR     COAT.  319 

canals,  rivers,  and  streams  receiving  sewerage,  and  from  ponds 
that  are  in  the  summer-time  reeking  with  slime,  and  often  of- 
fensive from  the  quantity  of  decomposed  vegetable  and  animal 
matter  brought  in  by  the  washing  from  the  meadow.  These 
streams  would  be  shunned  as  a  source  of  water  supply. 

Should  you  interview  a  native  regarding  the  slimy  mud-pud- 
dle before  you,  called  Mr.  So-and-so's  private  "ice-pond,"  he 
would  say  that  "in  winter  it  is  much  better,  and  when  frozen, 
you  know,  it  makes  fine  ice,"  presenting  that  popular  though 
ignorant  belief  that  while  in  the  act  of  crystallizing,  water  rids 
itself  of  all  its  injurious  qualities,  however  offensive  it  may  be 
in  its  liquid  state.  Unfortunately,  there  is  enough  truth  in  the 
current  idea  of  the  elimination  of  noxious  and  foreign  matter 
during  the  process  of  freezing  to  give  color  to  the  popular 
belief,  but  not  enough  to  make  it  a  safe  reliance ;  therefore  all 
means  should  be  used  to  enlighten  the  public  regarding  this 
subject.  Experiment  has  shown  that  freezing  produces  little 
change  or  effect  in  overcoming  the  poisonous  influences,  and  ice 
has  often  served  as  a  vehicle  to  convey  the  germs  of  typhoid 
and  other  low  forms  of  fever.  Pure  ice  can  be  procured  only 
from  water  free  from  impurities,  and  ice  for  domestic  or  sur- 
gical purposes  should  never  be  collected  from  ponds  or  streams 
which  contain  animal  or  vegetable  refuse,  or  stagnant  and 
muddy  material. — Journal  of  Reconstructives,  Oct.,  1887. 
^  The  Glandular  Coat  of  the  Stomach,  and  How  it  Weeps 
(p.  162). — While  the  food  is  thus  being  continually  moved  about, 
it  is  at  the  same  time  subjected  to  the  action  of  the  chemical 
sac.  This  is,  as  we  have  said,  a  glandular  sac.  It  is  of  some 
thickness,  and  is  made  of  little  glands  bound  up  together  with 
that  stringy  fibrous  packing  material  which  anatomists  call  con- 
nective tissue. 

If  we  were  to  imagine  many  gross  of  small  India-rubber 
vials  all  placed  side  by  side,  and  bound  together  with  hay 
or  straw  into  a  great  mat,  and  the  mat  rolled  up  into  a  sac, 
with  all  the  mouths  of  the  vials  turned  inward,  we  should 
have  a  large  and  coarse,  but  tolerably  fair  image  of  the  glandu- 
lar coat  of  the  stomach.  Each  vial  would  then  represent  one 
of  the  glands  of  this  coat,  one  of  the  gastric  or  peptic  glands, 
as  they  are  called.  Each  gland,  however,  is  not  always  a 


320 


DIGESTION     AND     FOOD. 


FIG.  72. 


simple  tube,  but  is  often  branched  at  the  bottom  end,  and  all 
of  them  are  lined,  except  just  at  their  mouths,  with  large 
rounded  bodies,  which  not  unfrequently  almost  choke  up  their 
cavity. 

The    rounded    masses,   or   cells,   as    they  are    called,   in  the 
interior    of   each    gland,    form   the    really    active    part    of    the 

apparatus.  Each  cell  is  a  little 
laboratory,  which  concocts  out 
of  the  material  brought  to  it 
or  near  it  by  the  blood  a  cer- 
tain potent,  biting  fluid,  and 
is  hence  called  a  peptic  or  di- 
gestive cell.  Each  cell  is  born 
at  the  bottom  of  the  tube, 
and  in  process  of  time  travels 
upward  toward  the  mouth. 
When  it  reaches  the  mouth, 
it  bursts,  and  pours  into  the 
stomach  the  fluid  it  has  elab- 
orated, or  perhaps  may  give  it 
out  without  bursting,  while  it 
is  still  within  its  tube. 

In  those  cases  in  which  it 
has  been  possible  to  look  in 
upon  the  stomach  while  at 
work  (as  in  the  famous  case 
of  Alexis  St.  Martin),  and 
where  the  orifices  of  the  tiny 
glands  (for  though  we  have 
compared  them  to  bottles,  they 
are  exceedingly  small)  appear 
like  little  dots,  tears  were  seen  to  start  at  the  mouths  of  the 
glands,  gather  into  drops,  and  finally  trickle  down  into  the 
lowest  part  of  the  stomach.  The  stomach,  as  it  were,  weeps ; 
and  indeed  the  weeping  of  tears  is  just  such  another  effect 
of  glandular  activity  —  only  ordinary  tears  form  a  mild  and, 
chemically  speaking,  impotent  fluid ;  while  the  fluid  which  the 
tears  of  the  stomach  weep— the  gastric  juice— is  a  sharp,  piercing 
water  of  excessive  chemical  power. — HINTON. 


BRANCHED    GASTRIC    GLAND. 


a.  The  peptic  cells,     b.  The  inert  cells. 


POISONOUS     MILK,     CHEESE,     ETC.  321 

Poisonous  Milk,  Cheese,  and  Ice-cream  (p.  169).— In  late 
years  there  have  been  many  cases  of  poisoning  by  ice-cream, 
cheese,  and  milk.  The  poisonous  principle  sometimes  developed 
in  these  articles  of  food  has  been  made  a  subject  of  special  in- 
vestigation, and  it  has  been  found  to  be  due  to  natural  causes. 
Dr.  Vaughan,  of  Michigan,  after  spending  several  months  in 
experimenting  upon  samples  of  twelve  different  cheeses,  which 
had  caused  three  hundred  cases  of  poisoning,  finally  succeeded 
in  isolating  certain  poison-crystals,  which  he  calls  Tyrotoxicon. 
He  says :  "A  few  drops  of  an  aqueous  solution  of  these  crystals 
placed  upon  the  tongue  produces  all  the  symptoms  observed  in 
those  who  had  been  made  sick  by  eating  of  the  cheese.  This 
was  tried  repeatedly  upon  myself,  and  upon  some  of  my  students 
who  kindly  offered  themselves  for  experimentation."  Dr. Vaughan 
'afterward  procured  the  poison-crystals  from  milk  which  had 
stood  some  months  in  a  closed  bottle,  and  also  from  a  sample 
of  ice-cream  by  which  eighteen  persons  had  been  made  ill.  It 
was  learned  in  the  latter  case  that  the  custard,  of  which  the 
ice-cream  was  made,  had  been  allowed  to  stand  in  a  foul  atmos- 
phere for  two  hours  before  it  was  frozen.  By  placing  small  bits 
of  this  poisonous  cream  in  good  milk,  and  allowing  it  to  stand 
twenty-four  hours,  the  whole  became  vitiated.  This  proved  that 
the  poison  is  due  to  the  growth  of  some  ferment.  In  the  au- 
tumn of  1886,  many  persons  in  different  hotels  at  Long  Branch 
were  poisoned  by  milk  obtained  from  a  certain  milkman.  In 
this  case  it  was  found  that  the  cows  were  milked  at  noon,  the 
warm  milk  being  immediately  placed  in  cans  and  carted  eight 
miles  during  the  warmest  part  of  the  day,  in  a  very  hot  month. 
In  June,  1887,  nineteen  persons  in  New  York  city  were  similarly 
poisoned  by  milk  which  also  came  from  one  dairy.  Many  of 
these  persons  had  narrow  escapes  from  death.  These,  and  many 
other  like  instances,  teach  us  the  importance  of  the  greatest 
care  in  every  detail  of  milk-handling.  A  little  dried  milk 
formed  along  the  seam  of  a  tin  pail,  or  any  similar  lodging- 
place,  may  be  the  starting-point  of  poison  generation.  A  month 
after  his  first  experiments  with  the  ice-cream  mentioned  above, 
Dr.  Vaughan  put  small  pieces  of  the  dried  custard  in  pans  of 
milk,  and  afterward  made  custard  from  this  milk.  This  yielded 
tyrotoxicon  as  before/  showing  the  tenacious  vitality  of  the 


322  DIGESTION     AN.D     FOOD. 

poison,  and  also  explaining  the  fact  that  the  precise  cause  of 
poisoning  is  in  many  cases  so  difficult  to  trace. 

Fish  as  Food  (p.  169). — It  is  not  desirable  that  fish  should 
be  the  sole  kind  of  nitrogenous  food  eaten  by  any  nation ;  and 
even  if  milk  and  eggs  be  added  thereto,  the  vigor  of  such  a 
people  will  not  be  equal  to  that  of  flesh-eating  nations.  At  the 
same  time,  the  value  of  fish  as  a  part  of  a  dietary  is  indicated 
by  the  larger  proportion  of  phosphorus  which  it  contains,  and 
which  renders  it  especially  fitted  for  the  use  of  those  who  per- 
form much  brain-work,  or  who  are  the  victims  of  much  anxiety 
and  distress. — EDWARD  SMITH,  in  "Foods." 

For  the  mentally  exhausted,  the  worried,  the  "  nervous," 
and  the  distressed  in  mind,  fish  is  not  simply  a  food ;  it  acts  as 
physic.  The  brain  is  nourished  by  it,  the  "nerves" — to  use  the 
term  in  its  popular  sense — are  "quieted";  the  mind  grows 
stronger,  the  temper  less  irritable,  and  the  whole  being  healthier 
and  happier  when  fish  is  substituted  for  butcher's  meat.  ...  I 
find  persons  who  are  greatly  excited,  even  to  the  extent  of 
seeking  to  do  violence  to  themselves  or  to  those  around  them, 
who  can  not  sleep,  and  who  are  in  an  agony  of  irritability,  be- 
come composed  and  contented  when  fed  almost  exclusively  on 
fish.  In  such  cases  I  have  withdrawn  butter,  milk,  eggs,  and 
all  the  varieties  of  warm-blooded  animal  food ;  and,  carefully 
noting  the  weight  and  strength,  I  find  no  diminution  of  either, 
while  fish  is  supplied  in  such  quantities  as  fully  to  satisfy  the 
appetite.— J.  MORTIMER  G-RANVILLE,  M.D.,  "  Fish  as  Food  and 
Physic." 

Coffee  and  Tea  (p.  170).— Besides  the  alkaloid  Caffeine 
which  coffee  contains,  it  also  develops,  in  roasting,  a  volatile  oil 
called  Caffeone,  to  which  is  due  its  characteristic  aroma.  The 
main  effects  of  coffee  are  due  to  both  the  caffeine  and  the 
caffeone,  which  are  antagonistic,  though  not  contemporaneous, 
in  action.  The  volatile  oil  reduces  arterial  tension,  allows  a 
brisker  flow  of  blood,  and  so  increases  the-  rapidity  of  the  heart's 
action.  It  also  acts  upon  the  brain,  and  intellectual  faculties  in 
general ;  keeps  one  awake,  and  his  mind  clear.  Caffeine,  on 
the  other  hand,  like  digitalis,  produces  a  high  arterial  tension, 
and  slows  the  heart-beat.  It  exerts  its  chief  effect  upon  the 
spinal  cord,  to  which,  like  strychnia,  it  is  an  excitant.  The 


COFFEE     AND     TEA.  328 

shaking  hand  of  the  inveterate  coffee-drinker  is  caused  by  caf- 
feine. Thus  a  cup  of  coffee  produces  on  the  drinker  a  double 
effect,— of  the  oil  and  the  alkaloid;  the  former  sooner  and 
transient,  the  latter  later  and  lasting.  .  .  .  Coffee  is  not  in 
itself  nutritious  to  any  marked  degree ;  but  it  saves  food,  and 
also  maintains  life,  by  its  exhilarating  effect  upon  the  nervous 
system.  It  is  an  excellent  antidote  to  opium,  producing  the 
wakefulness  that  antagonizes  the  narcotic  sleep  of  the  drug ;  is 
now  and  then  curative  of  sick  headache,  and  is  one  of  the 
standard  remedies  for  certain  forms  of  nausea. 

To  the  chemist,  Tea  is  much  the  same  thing  as  coffee.  It 
contains  considerably  more  tannin,  a  volatile  oil,  and  an  alka- 
loid (theine)  indistinguishable  from  caffeine.  That  the  injurious 
effects  of  overdoses  are  due  as  much  to  the  volatile  oil  as  to  the 
alkaloid,  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  tea-packers  are  made  ill  by 
long  breathing  of  air  filled  with  it,  and  that  tea-tasters  in 
China,  who  avoid  swallowing  the  infusion,  can  endure  their 
trade  but  a  few  years,  and  leave  the  country  with  shattered 
nerves. 

Probably  every  one  numbers  among  his  friends  women  who 
are  actual  slaves  of  the  tea-habit,  and  who  would  find  tea  as 
hard  to  forsake  as  men. find  tobacco.  It  is  not  unlikely  that 
the  functional  cardiac  disorder,  often  spoken  of  as  the  "tobacco 
heart,"  due  to  nervous  derangement,  and  accompanied  by  palpi- 
tation and  pain  in  the  cardiac  region,  is  more  often  due  to  tea 
than  tobacco.  In  fact,  the  disorders  induced  by  excessive  tea- 
drinking  have  been  grasped  as  a  special  disease,  to  which  has 
been  given  the  name  of  Theism.  This  includes  a  train  of 
symptoms,  usually  progressive,  loss  of  appetite,  pain  after 
meals,  headache,  constipation,  palpitation,  cardiac  distress,  hys- 
terical manifestations,  dizziness,  and  paresis. — DR.  MAURICE  D. 
CLARKE,  Popular  Science  News. 

Tea-drinkers,  as  a  rule,  express  doubts  as  regards  the  cor- 
rectness of  alleged  poisonous  properties  of  tea.  Numerous  in- 
stances of  individuals  of  this  class  have  been  noticed  who  were 
themselves  suffering  from  tea-poisoning.  Their  nerves  were  in 
a  deplorably  abnormal  condition,  the  heart  and  brain  were 
functionally  disturbed,  and  the  sleep  less  in  quantity  and  less 
refreshing  than  it  should  be.  ...  One's  opinion  of  the  physical 


324  DIGESTION     AND     FOOD. 

disturbances  which  may  be  caused  by  rum,  tobacco,  or  tea,  are 
not  worth  much,  when  the  opinion  comes  from  a  victim  of  the 
excessive  use  of  these  agents. 

The  tannin  found  in  tea  does  not  differ  from  that  found  in 
oak  and  other  barks  which  the  tanners  use  to  convert  the  raw 
hides  of  animals  into  leather.  It  is  a  powerful  astringent,  which 
accounts  for  some  of  the  peculiar  physical  evils  to  which  con- 
firmed tea-drinkers  are  subject. 

Theine  does  not  differ  essentially  from  Cocaine  (see  p.  223). 
They  both  produce  exaltation  of  the  nervous  system  and  in- 
creased powers  of  physical  endurance.  The  brain  is  largely 
influenced  in  its  functions,  and  long  periods  of  wakefulness  are 
induced.  Continued  use  of  strong  infusions  of  either  coca  or 
tea  result  in  great  disturbance  of  nervous  centers  and  functional 
offices,  and  either  will  produce  fatal  results  by  persistent  use  of 
inordinate  quantities. 

A  cup  of  tea  as  served  at  tea-tables  contains  usually  only  a 
trace  of  the  alkaloidal  principle,  but  infinitesimal  quantities  are 
capable  of  exerting  baneful  effects  upon  some  tea-drinkers.  .  .  . 
Poisons  act  in  a  variety  of  ways,  some  slowly,  and  without 
producing  pain ;  others  act  violently,  and  with  speedy,  fatal 
results.  Inasmuch  as  we  do  not  observe  a  very  large  number 
of  clearly  proved  cases  of  acute  poisoning  by  tea,  we  must  con- 
clude that  it  is  characteristically  a  slow  poison,  and  also  that  its 
influence  is  unlike  in  different  individuals.  .  .  .  Four  or  six 
cups  of  tea,  however,  taken  during  each  twenty-four  hours,  will 
in  time  produce  tea-poisoning,  and  greater  or  less  evil  effects. 

Tea  is  well  enough,  when  its  use  is  kept  under  absolute,  in- 
telligent control ;  but  if  it  becomes  master  in  any  case,  then  it 
must  be  promptly  abandoned,  for  danger  attends  the  intemper- 
ate tea-drinker  every  hour  of  his  life.  Those  advanced  in  life 
crave  its  stimulating  effects,  and  it  is  well  for  them  to  use  it  in 
moderation ;  but  the  young  should  abstain  from  it  entirely. — 
Abridged  from  "  Tea  Poisoning"  by  DR.  NICHOLS,  in  Popular 
Science  News,  December,  1887. 

Causes  and  Effects  of  Indigestion  (p.  172).— When  a  light 
breakfast  is  eaten,  a  solid  meal  is  requisite  in  the  middle  of 
the  day.  If  the  digestive  organs  are  left  too  long  unemployed, 
they  secrete  an  excess  of  mucus,  which  greatly  interferes  with 


HOW     FOOD     DEVELOPS     HNEEGY.  325 

their  normal  functions.  One  meal  has  a  direct  influence  on  the 
next ;  and  a  poor  breakfast  leaves  the  stomach  over-active  for 
dinner.  This  is  the  secret  of  much  excess  in  eating.  The  point 
to  bear  in  mind  is  that  not  to  eat  a  sufficiency  at  one  meal 
makes  you  too  hungry  for  the  next ;  and  that  when  you  are 
too  hungry,  you  are  apt  to  overload  the  stomach,  and  to  give 
the  gastric  juices  more  to  do  than  they  have  the  power  to  per- 
form. 

To  eat  too  often,  and  to  eat  irregularly,  are  other  sources  of 
indigestion.  People  who  dine  at  uncertain  hours,  and  eat  one 
meal  too  quickly  on  the  last,  must  expect  the  stomach  to  retal- 
iate in  the  long  run.  '  A  very  fruitful  cause  of  dyspepsia  is  im- 
perfect mastication.  "We  remember  one  old  gentleman  who  used 
always  to  warn  young  people  on  this  point  by  saying:  "Re- 
member you  have  no  teeth  in  your  stomach."  Nervous  people 
nearly  always  eat  fast,  and  as  nearly  always  are  the  victims  of 
nervous  irritability,  produced  by  dyspepsia.  ...  To  sit  much 
in  a  stooping  posture  interferes  with  the  stomach's  action. 
Well-marked  dyspepsia  has  been  traced  to  sitting  immediately 
after  dinner  in  a  low  arm-chair,  so  that  the  body  was  curved 
forward,  and  the  stomach  compressed 

The  skin,  core,  and  kernels  of  fruit  should  be  avoided.  Some 
people  are  not  able  to  digest  raw  apples ;  and  dyspepsia  has 
been  sometimes  greatly  aggravated  by  eating  pears.  The  latter 
fruit,  in  its  ripest  state,  contains  an  abundance  of  gritty  mate- 
rial, which,  as  it  can  not  be  separated  in  the  mouth,  on  being 
swallowed  irritates  the  mucous  membrane 

Of  food  itself,  bear  in  mind  that  hot  meat  is  more  digestible 
than  cold  ;  the  flesh  of  full-grown  animals  than  that  of  young 
ones  ;  that  land  birds  are  more  digestible  than  water-fowl ;  wild 
animals  than  domestic  ones ;  and  that  in  game,  newly-killed 
birds  are  easier  of  digestion  than  those  which  have  been  kept 
a /Jong  time. — Hints  to  Dyspeptics,  Chambers'  Journal. 

How  Food  Develops  Energy  (p.  173). —  It  may  appear 
strange  that  the  small  amount  of  food  we  eat  should  suffice  to 
carry  our  large  and  bulky  bodies  through  all  the  varied  move- 
ment of  the  day.  But  this  difficulty  disappears  at  once,  when 
we  recollect  how  large  an  amount  of  dormant  energy  can  be 
laid  by  in  a  very  smail  piece  of  matter.  A  lump  of  coal  no 


326  DIGESTION     AND     FOOD. 

bigger  than  one's  fist,  if  judiciously  employed,  will  suffice  to 
keep  a  small  toy-engine  at  work  for  a  considerable  time.  Now, 
our  food  is  matter  containing  large  amounts  of  dormant  energy, 
and  our  bodies  are  engines  so  constructed  as  to  utilize  all  the 
energy  to  the  best  advantage.  A  single  gramme  of  beef-fat  if 
completely  burned  (that  is,  if  every  atom  unites  with  oxygen), 
is  capable  of  developing  more  than  9,000  heat-units ;  and  each 
heat-unit,  if  employed  to  perform  mechanical  work,  is  capable 
of  lifting  a  weight  of  one  gramme  to  a  height  of  424  meters; 
or,  what  comes  to  the  same  thing,  424  grammes  to  a  height  of 
one  meter.  Accordingly,  the  energy  contained  in  one  gramme 
of  beef,  and  the  oxygen  with  which  it  unites,  would  be  sufficient 
to  raise  the  little  bit  of  fat  itself  to  a  height  of  3,816  kilo- 
meters, or  almost  as  high  as  the  distance  from  London  to  New 
York. — Q-RANT  ALLEN  in  "  Why  do  we  Eat  our  Dinner*!" 

Danger  of  Too  High  Pressure.  —  A  prudent  fire-engineer, 
when  his  water-hose  is  old  and  weak,  would  not  try  to  force  as 
much  water  as  he  could  into  it.  No ;  to  prevent  a  rupture  he 
would  work  it  at  a  low  pressure.  But  men  seldom  think  of 
carrying  out  the  same  simple  mechanical  principle  when  there 
is  reason  to  believe  that  the  vessels  of  the  brain  are  getting 
weak  and  brittle.  They  eat  and  drink  just  as  much  as  they  feel 
inclined  to,  and  sometimes  a  little  more.  With  a  good  digestion, 
nearly  all  they  consume  is  converted  into  blood,  to  the  yet  fur- 
ther distention  of  vessels  already  over-distended.  This  high- 
pressure  style  of  living  produces  high-pressure  results.  Its  ef- 
fects were  painfully  illustrated  by  the  death  of  Charles  Dickens. 
The  brain-work  he  performed  was  immense ;  he  lived  gener- 
ously, taking  his  wine  as  he  did  his  meat,  with  a  liberal  hand. 
He  disregarded  the  signs  of  structural  decay,  forcing  his  reluc- 
tant brain  to  do  what  it  had  once  done  with  spontaneous  ease, 
until  all  at  once,  under  a  greater  tension  than  ordinary,  a  weak 
vessel  gave  way,  flooding  the  brain  with  blood. — J.  R.  BLACK, 
M.D.,  in  '''Apoplexy,"  Popular  Science  Monthly,  April,  1875. 

Evils  of  Gluttony.  —  "Is  it  not  strange,"  says  Dr.  Hunt, 
"how  people,  even  the  most  considerate,  will  trifle  with  their 
stomachs?  Many  a  person  seems  to  prefer  taking  medicine  to 
avoiding  it  by  a  proper  regulation  of  the  appetite.  You  may 
stuff  the  stomach  to  the  full,  year  after  year,  but  as  sure  as 


EVILS     OF     GLUTTONY.  327 

effects  follow  causes,  so  sure  will  you  reap  the  accumulating 
penalty."  A  physician  of  extensive  practice  declares  that  he 
has  never  lived  through  a  Christmas  or  Thanksgiving  without 
frequently  being  consulted  for  ailments  produced  by  excessive 
eating.  He  says  :  "It  would  seem  as  if  multitudes  thought  they 
had  a  gluttonous  license  once  a  year,  and  that  the  most  appro- 
priate method  of  expressing  gratitude,  was  by  stuffing  the 
stomach."  Excessive  eating  produces  scrofula.  Surfeiting  among 
children  results  in  mental  stupidity  and  unmanageable  temper. 
...  I  am  acquainted  with  a  family,  in  which  about  the  aver- 
age amount  of  stuffing  is  indulged.  To  my  expostulations,  the 
mother  has  replied:  "I  may  not  be  able  to  give  my  children 
as  much  education  as  some  folks,  and  I  may  not  be  able  to  give 
them  any  property,  but  as  long  as  we  can  get  it,  they  shall 
have  what  they  want  to  eat."  I  have  spoken  of  their  black 
teeth,  bad  breath,  eruptions,  and  frequent  sickness.  "Yes,"  she 
has  replied,  "I  know  all  that,  but  would  you  have  me  stop 
them  before  their  appetites  are  half  satisfied,  and  tell  them, 
'  there,  that  is  all  you  can  have '  ?  No ;  as  long  as  I  can  get  it, 
my  children  shall  have  enough  to  eat ;  it  never  shall  be  said 
that  I  have  starved  them."  This  indulgence  of  children  to  the 
full  extent  of  their  undiscriminating  appetites  is  extreme  folly 
and  genuine  unkindness.  Pampered  with  a  variety  of  dishes, 
they  eat  enormously,  which  engenders  a  craving  for  another 
large  meal,  and  so  on — their  youthful  and  elastic  constitutions 
enabling  them  to  bear  the  excess  without  immediate  serious 
injury.  Let  them  be  confined  to  one  or  two  plain  dishes  at  a 
meal,  and  the  quantity  be  determined  for  them ;  it  will  then  be 
found  that  a  growing  child  does  not  need  to  be  stuffed,  and 
that  his  appetite  will  soon  become  reasonable ;  and  if  the  food 
be  plain,  and  mostly  or  entirely  vegetable,  it  will  soon  be  ob- 
served that  the  child's  teeth  are  whiter,  its  breath  sweeter,  its 
skin  clearer,  its  tongue  cleaner,  its  eyes  brighter,  its  sleep 
quieter,  its  brains  sharper,  and  its  temper  more  amiable.  There 
are  few  changes  in  the  management  of  children  which  would 
prove  so  beneficial  as  that  from  the  present  mode  of  cramming 
with  a  multitude  of  rich  foods,  to  a  plain  vegetable  diet,  eaten 
in  regular  and  moderate  quantities. — Dio  LEWIS,  in  Weak  Lungs, 
and  How  to  Make  them'  Strong. 


328  DIGESTION     AND     FOOD. 

Regular  Physical  Habits  (p.  177).— Constipation  lies  at  the 
root  of  a  host  of  chronic  ailments,  which  seem  especially  to 
beset  American  women.  Impaired  blood,  nervous  excitability, 
sick-headaches,  mental  depression,  sleeplessness,  and  a  long 
train  of  untold  sufferings  may  be  directly  traced  to  this  physical 
sin.  We  say  sin,  for  in  the  large  majority  of  instances  this 
habit  may  be  prevented ;  or,  if  already  formed,  may,  by  proper 
attention,  be  cured.  The  principal  causes  which  lead  to  this 
deplorable  state  of  the  system  are: 

1.  Errors  in  Food. 

2.  Errors  in  Exercise. 

3.  Inattention  to  Nature's  laws. 

Errors  in  Food  have  much  to  do  with  the  evil  in  question. 
Our  diet  is,  in  general,  too  concentrated.  We  indulge  ourselves 
with  animal  food  two  or  three  times  a  day,  accompanying  it 
with  spices,  condiments,  greasy  gravies,  fine  wheat  bread,  and 
a  sparse  amount  of  vegetables.  We  wind  up  our  dinners  with 
rich  and  heavy  pastry,  and  our  luncheons  or  our  suppers  with 
sugared  sweetmeats  and  that  indigestible  compound  often  offered 
under  the  name  of  cake.  A  few  cups  of  strong  tea  intensify 
the  error.  Coffee  has  a  less  astringent  effect,  and  therefore  can 
not  be  so  severely  arraigned  for  this  particular  consequence. 
When  we  think  what  delicious  meals  can  be  enjoyed  from  any 
of  the  cereals,  well  cooked,  and  taken  with  milk  or  cream,  bread 
from  unbolted  flour,  plenty  of  unsugared  fruit,  and  pure  rain  or 
spring  water,  filtered  and  cooled  or  taken  hot,  with  or  without 
milk,  we  wonder  that  so  many  people  consent  day  after  day  to 
use  greasy  pork,  fried  steaks,  fried  potatoes,  hot  biscuit,  and  in 
many  cases  poorly  made  coffee  and  tea.  These  are  the  people 
who  make  up  the  grand  army  of  sallow-faced  sufferers  upon 
which  the  venders  of  patent  pills  and  nauseous  compounds  thrive. 

A  wise  mother  will  not  allow  mere  culinary  convenience  to 
take  precedence  of  the  requirements  of  health.  She  will  study 
the  peculiar  physical  needs  of  each  one  of  her  children,  that 
she  may  provide  for  each  the  food  best  suited  to  his  or  her 
constitution.  This  is  not  a  difficult  matter.  "Water,  not  only 
by  itself,  but  in  some  of  its  combinations,"  says  Dr.  Oswald, 
"is  an  effective  aperient;  in  water-melons,  and  whey,  for  in- 
stance, but  still  more  in  conjunction  with  a  dish  of  peas,  or 


REGULAR     PHYSICAL     HABITS.  329 

beans.  No  constipation  can  long  withstand  the  suasion  of  a 
dose  of  pea-soup,  or  baked  beans,  flavored  with  a  modicum  of 
brown  butter,  and  glorified  with  a  cup  of  cold  spring  water. 
Moreover,  the  aperient  effect  thus  produced  is  not  followed  by 
an  astringent  reaction,  as  in  the  case  of  drugs, — the  cure,  once 
effected,  is  permanent." 

Errors  in  Exercise  may  lie  in  two  directions,  and  over-exer- 
tion, viz.,  exercise  carried  to  the  point  of  nervous  exhaustion, 
is  as  mischievous  in  its  effect  as  is  the  other  extreme.  A  too- 
long  walk,  for  instance,  may  cause  the  very  evil  it  is  intended 
to  cure. 

As  a  rule,  however,  sedentary  habits  are  chargeable  with  the 
greater  share  of  influence  in  this  unhappy  state  of  the  system. 
Light  gymnastics  within  doors,  a  brisk  walk  or  horseback  ride 
without,  both  taken  in  garments  suspended  from  the  shoulders, 
and  devoid  of  all  constriction  so  that  the  abdominal  viscera  can 
partake  in  the  general  movement  of  the  body,  are  advisable. 
For  invalids  or  those  incapacitated  for  active  exercise,  friction  or 
massage  treatment  daily,  including  a  vigorous  kneading  of  the 
abdomen,  or  a  relaxation  of  the  entire  muscles  of  the  body  with 
especial  thought  directed  to  the  desired  result,  are  often  of  great 
service. 

Inattention  to  Physical  Laws  is  perhaps  the  prime  culprit. 
Nature  always  inclines  to  regularity,  and  when  we  do  not  re- 
spect her  dictates,  we  invite  the  retribution  which,  sooner  or 
flater,  she  invariably  inflicts.  The  elimination  of  waste  from  the 
system  is  an  imperative  necessity,  and  whenever  it  is  thwarted, 
evil  must  and  will  follow.  Aside  from  the  avoidance  of  positive 
discomforts,  suffering,  and  disease,  there  is  the  not  unimportant 
consideration  of  bodily  elasticity  and  a  fine  complexion.  Let 
every  young  woman  who  would  possess  and  retain  a  fair,  deli- 
cate complexion,  remember  that  the  most  important  factor  in 
its  formation  and  retention  is  a  clean  system. 

Proper  diet,  plenty  of  fruits,  plenty  of  wholesome  drink, 
enough  exercise  to  send  the  blood  pleasurably  bounding  through 
the  veins,  followed  up  and  enforced  by  prompt  recognition  of 
the  immutable  laws  of  Health  in  this  as  well  as  all  other  or- 
ganic functions,  will  soon  work  a  reform  that  could  not  be  so 
successfully  effected  by  ajl  the  drugs  in  Christendom.— E.  B.  S. 


330  THE     NERVOUS     SYSTEM. 


THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM. 

Effect  of  Violent  Passions  upon  Health  (p.  202).— The 
man  who  is  given  to  outbursts  of  anger  is  sure  to  experience  a 
rapid  change  of  the  physical  organs,  in  case  he  does  not  die  in 
a  fit  of  rage. 

Death  under  such  circumstances  is  of  frequent  occurrence. 
Sylla,  Valentinian,  Nerva,  "Wenceslas,  and  Isabeau  of  Bavaria, 
all  died  in  consequence  of  an  access  of  passion.  The  medical 
annals  of  our  own  time  recount  many  instances  of  fatal  effects 
following  the  violent  brain-disturbance  caused  by  anger.  The 
symptoms  usually  are  pulmonary  and  cerebral  congestions.  Still 
such  fatal  accidents  as  these  are  exceptional ;  as  a  rule,  the 
passions  of  hate  and  anger  deteriorate  the  constitution  by  slow, 
but  sure  degrees. 

How,  then,  do  we  explain  those  morbid  phenomena  which 
have  their  origin  in  misplaced  affection,  in  disappointed  ambi- 
tion, in  hatred,  or  in  anger,  and  which  culminate  either  in 
serious  chronic  maladies,  or  in  death  or  suicide  ?  They  all  seem  to 
start  from  an  impairment  of  the  cerebro-spinal  centers.  The 
continual  excitation  of  these  by  ever-present  emotions  deter- 
mines a  paralysis  of  the  central  nerve-substance,  and  thus 
affects  its  connections  with  the  nerves  extending  out  to  the  va- 
rious organs.  These  nerves  next  degenerate  by  degrees,  and 
soon  the  great  functions  are  compromised.  The  heart  and  the 
lungs  cease  to  act  with  their  normal  rhythm,  the  circulation 
grows  irregular  and  languishing.  Appetite  disappears,  the 
amount  of  carbonic  acid  exhaled  decreases,  and  the  hair  grows 
white,  owing  to  the  interruption  of  the  pigmentary  secretion. 
This  general  disturbance  in  nutrition  and  secretion  is  attended 
with  a  fall  of  the  body's  temperature  and  anaemia.  The  flesh 
dries  up  and  the  organism  becomes  less  and  less  capable  of  re- 
sisting morbific  influences.  At  the  same  time,  in  consequence 
of  the  reaction  of  all  these  disturbances  on  the  brain,  the  psychic 
faculties  become  dull  or  perverted,  and  the  patient  falls  into  a 
decline  more  or  less  complicated  and  aggravated  by  grave 
symptoms.  Under  these  conditions  he  dies  or  makes  away  with 
himself. 


EFFECT     OF     VIOLENT     PASSIONS.  331 

Two  organs,  the  stomach  and  the  liver,  are  often  affected  in 
a  peculiar  and  characteristic  way  in  the  course  of  this  patho- 
logical evolution.  The  modifications  produced  in  the  innervation, 
under  the  influence  of  cephalic  excitement,  cause  a  disturbance 
of  the  blood-circulation  in  the  liver.  This  disturbance  is  of  such 
a  nature  that  the  bile,  now  secreted  in  larger  quantity,  is  re- 
sorbed  into  the  blood  instead  of  passing  into  the  biliary  vesicle. 
Then  appears  what  we  call  jaundice.  The  skin  becomes  pale, 
then  yellow,  owing  to  the  presence  in  the  blood  of  the  coloring 
matter  of  the  bile.  This  change  in  the  liver  is  usually  developed 
slowly:  sometimes,  however,  jaundice  makes  its  appearance 
suddenly.  Villeneuve  mentions  the  case  of  two  youths  who 
brought  a  discussion  to  an  end  by  grasping  their  swords;  sud- 
denly one  of  them  turned  yellow,  and  the  other,  alarmed  at 
this  transformation,  dropped  his  weapon.  The  same  author 
speaks  of  a  priest  who  became  jaundiced  on  seeing  a  mad  dog 
jump  at  him.  Whatever  may  be  said  of  these  cases,  we  must 
reckon  painful  affections  of  the  soul  among  the  efficient  causes 
of  chronic  diseases  of  the  liver. 

The  digestion,  says  the  author  of  a  work  published  some 
years  ago,  is  completely  subjected  to  the  influence  of  the  moral 
and  intellectual  state.  When  the  brain  is  wearied  by  the  pas- 
sions, appetite  and  digestion  are  almost  gone.  .  .  .  There  is 
nowhere  perfect  health,  save  when  the  passions  are  well  regu- 
lated, harmonized,  and  equipoised.  Moral  temperance  is  as  in- 
dispensable to  a  calm  and  tranquil  life  as  physiological  temper- 
ance. * .  .  .  If  it  is  your  desire  that  your  circulatory,  respiratory, 
and  digestive  functions  should  be  discharged  properly,  normally, 
if  you  want  your  appetite  to  be  good,  your  sleep  sound,  your 
humor  equable,  avoid  all  emotions  that  are  overstrong,  all 
pleasures  that  are  too  intense,  and  meet  the  inevitable  sorrows 
and  the  cruel  agonies  of  life  with  a  firm  and  resigned  soul. 
Ever  have  some  occupation  to  employ  and  divert  your  mind, 
and  to  make  it  proof  against  the  temptations  of  w&nt  or  of 
desire.  Thus  will  you  attain  the  term  of  life  without  overmuch 
disquiet  and  affliction. — FEENAND  PAPILLON,  in  the  Revue,  des 
Deux  Mondes. 

Brain-work,  Overwork,  and  Worry  (p.  205).— Overstimu- 
fation  of  the  Brain  in  ^Childhood. —  Most  civilized  communities 


332  THE     NERVOUS     SYSTEM. 

have  enacted  laws  against  the  employment  of  children  in  severe 
physical  labor.  This  is  well  enough,  for  the  muscles  of  young 
persons  are  tender  and  weak,  and  not,  therefore,  adapted  to 
the  work  to  which  cupidity  or  ignorance  would  otherwise 
subject  them.  But  no  such  fostering  care  does  the  State  take 
of  the  brains  of  the  young.  There  are  no  laws  to  prevent  the 
undeveloped  nervous  system  being  overtasked  and  brought  to 
disease,  or  even  absolute  destruction.  Every  physician  sees 
cases  of  the  kind,  and  wonders  how  parents  of  intelligence  can 
be  so  blind  to  the  welfare  of  their  offspring  as  to  force,  or  even 
to  allow,  their  brains  to  be  worked  to  a  degree  that,  in  many 
cases,  results  in  idiocy  or  death.  .Only  a  few  months  ago  I  saw 
for  the  first  time  a  boy  of  five  years  of  age,  with  a  large  head, 
a  prominent  forehead,  and  all  the  other  signs  of  mental  pre- 
cocity. He  had  read  the  first  volume  of  Bryant's  "History  of 
the  United  States,"  and  was  preparing  to  tackle  the  other  vol- 
umes !  He  read  the  magazines  of  the  day  with  as  much  inter- 
est as  did  his  father,  and  conversed  with  equal  facility  on  the 
politics  of  the  period.  But  a  few  weeks  before  I  saw  him  he 
had  begun  to  walk  in  his  sleep,  then  chorea  had  made  its  ap- 
pearance, and  on  the  day  before  he  was  brought  to  me  he  had 
had  a  well-marked  epileptic  paroxysm.  Already  his  mind  is 
weakened — perhaps  permanently  so.  Such  cases  are  not  isolated 
ones.  They  are  continually  occurring. 

The  period  of  early  childhood — say  up  to  seven  or  eight 
years  of  age — is  that  during  which  the  brain  and  other  parts  of 
the  nervous  system  are  most  actively  developing,  in  order  to  fit 
them  for  the  great  work  before  them.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  the 
only  instruction  given  during  this  time  should  be  that  which 
consists  in  teaching  children  how  to  observe.  The  perceptive 
faculties  alone  should  be  made  the  subjects  of  systematic  at- 
tempts at  development.  The  child  should  be  taught  how  to  use 
his  senses,  and  especially  how  to  see,  hear,  and  touch.  In  this 
manner,  knowledge  would  be  acquired  in  the  way  that  is  pre- 
eminently the  natural  way,  and  ample  food  would  be  furnished 
for  the  child's  reflective  powers. — DR.  WM.  A.  HAMMOND,  Popii- 
lar  Science  Monthly,  November,  1884. 

Reserve  Force. — The  part  which  "a  stock  of  energy"  plays 
in  brain-work  can  scarcely  be  exaggerated.  Reserves  are  of 


OVERWORK     AND     WORRY.  833 

high  moment  every-where  in  the  animal  economy,  and  the  re- 
serve of  mental  force  is  in  a  practical  sense  more  important 
than  any  other.  .  .  .  Without  this  reserve,  healthy  brain-work 
is  impossible.  Pain,  hunger,  anxiety,  and  a  sense  of  mind-weari- 
ness, are  warning  tokens  of  exhaustion.  When  the  laborious 
worker,  overcome  with  fatigue,  "rouses"  himself  with  alcohol, 
coffee,  tea,  or  any  other  agent  which  may  chance  to  suit  him, 
he  does  not  add  a  unit  of  force  to  his  stock  of  energy  ;  he  simply 
narcotizes  the  sense  of  weariness,  and,  the  gua'rd  being  drugged, 
he  appropriates  the  reserve.  .  .  .  Meanwhile,  the  effort  to  work 
becomes  daily  more  laborious,  the  task  of  fixing  the  attention 
grows  increasingly  difficult,  thoughts  wander,  memory  fails,  the 
reasoning  power  is  enfeebled ;  physical  nerve  or  brain  disturb- 
ance may  supervene,  and  the  crash  will  then  come  suddenly, 
unexpected  .by  on-lookers,  perhaps  unperceived  by  the  sufferer 
himself. 

Overwork  and  Worry. —  The  miseries  of  "overwork,"  pure 
and  simple,  are  few  and  comparatively  insignificant.  .  .  .  The 
natural  safeguards  are  so  well  fitted  for  their  task  that  neither 
body  nor  mind  is  exposed  to  the  peril  of  serious  exhaustion  so 
long  as  their  functions  are  duly  performed.  Overwork  is  impos- 
sible so  long  as  the  effort  made  is  natural.  .  .  .  There  is  then 
no  excuse  for  idleness  in  the  pretense  of  possible  injury.  If 
insane  asylums  were  searched  for  the  victims  of  "overwork," 
they  would  nearly  all  be  found  to  have  fallen  a  prey  to  "worry," 
or  to  the  degeneracy  which  results  from  lack  of  purpose  in  life, 
and  of  steady  employment.  .  .  .  The  cause  or  condition  which 
most  commonly  exposes  the  reserve  of  mental  energy  to  loss 
and  injury  is  worry.  When  a  strong  and  active  mind  breaks 
-down  suddenly  in  the  midst  of  business,  it  is  usually  worn  out 
by  this  cause  rather  than  by  the  other.  .  .  .  Work  in  the  teeth 
of  worry  is  fraught  with  peril.  The  unhappy  victim  is  ever  on  the 
verge  of  a  catastrophe  ;  if  he  escape,  the  marvel  is  not  at  his 
strength  of  intellect  so  much  as  at  his  good  fortune.  Worry  is 
disorder,  however  induced,  and  disorderly  work  is  abhorred  by 
the  laws  of  nature,  which  leave  it  wholly  without  remedy. 

The  pernicious  system  of  Cram  slays  its  thousands,  because 
uneducated,  undeveloped,  inelastic  intellects  are  burdened  and 
strained  with  information  adroitly  deposited  in  the  memory, — 


334  THE     NERVOUS     SYSTEM. 

as  an  expert  valet  packs  a  portmanteau,  with  the  articles  likely 
to  be  first  wanted  on  the  top.  Desultory  occupation,  mere 
play  with  objects  of  which  the  true  interest  is  not  appreciated, 
ruins  a  still  larger  number.  But  worry,  that  bane  of  brain- 
work  and  mental  energy,  counts  its  victims  by  tens  of  thou- 
sands.—  DR.  J.  MORTIMER  GRANVILLE,  in  "  Worry"  Nineteenth 
Century. 

Sleep  (p.  206).—  Some  Curiosities  of  Sleep.  — One  of  the 
most  refined  and  exquisite  methods  of  torture  is  long  continued 
deprivation  of  sleep.  The  demand  for  unconscious  rest  is  so  im- 
perious that  nature  will  accommodate  itself  to  the  most  unfavor- 
able surrounding  conditions.  Thus,  in  forced  marches,  regiments 
have  been  known  to  sleep  while  walking ;  men  have  slept 
soundly  in  the  saddle ;  and  persons  will  sometimes  sleep  during 
the  din  of  battle.  It  is  remarkable  how  noises  to  which  we  have 
been  accustomed  will  fail  to  disturb  our  natural  rest.  Those 
who  have  been  long  habituated  to  the  endless  noise  of  a  crowded 
city  frequently  find  difficulty  in  sleeping  in  the  oppressive  still- 
ness of  the  country.  Prolonged  exposure  to  intense  cold  induces 
excessive  somnolence,  and  if  this  be  induced,  the  sleep  passes 
into  stupor,  the  power  of  resistance  to  cold  becomes  rapidly 
diminished,  and  death  is  the  inevitable  result.  Intense  heat 
often  produces  drowsiness,  but,  as  is  well  known,  is  not  favor- 
able to  natural  sleep.  ...  It  is  difficult  to  determine  with 
exactness  the  phenomena  of  sleep  that  are  absolutely  physio- 
logical, and  to  separate  those  that  are  slightly  abnormal.  We 
can  not  assert,  for  example,  that  a  dreamless  sleep  is  the  only 
normal  condition  of  repose  of  the  system  ;  nor  can  we  determine 
what  dreams  are  due  to  previous  trains  of  thought,  or  to  such 
impressions  from  the  external  world  received  during  sleep  as 
are  purely  physiological,  and  what  are  due  to  abnormal  nervous 
influence,  disordered  digestion,  etc. 

The  most  remarkable  experiments  upon  the  production  of 
dreams  of  a  definite  character,  by  subjecting  a  person  during 
sleep  to  peculiar  influences,  are  those  of  Maury.  The  hallucina- 
tions produced  in  this  way  are  called  hypnagogic  (from  its  deri- 
vation this  term  is  properly  applied  only  to  phenomena  observed 
at  the  instant  when  we  fall  asleep,  or  when  we  are  imperfectly 
awakened,  and  not  to  the  period  of  most  perfect  repose),  and 


SLEEP.  835 

they  occur  when  the  subject  is  not  in  a  condition  favorable  to 
sound  sleep. 

The  experiments  made  by  Maury  upon  himself  are  so  curious 
and  interesting  that  we  quote  the  most  striking  of  them  in  full. 

First  Observation. — I  am  tickled  with  a  feather  successively 
on  the  lips  and  inside  of  the  nostrils.  I  dream  that  I  am  sub- 
jected to  a  horrible  punishment,  that  a  mask  of  pitch  is  applied 
to  my  face,  and  then  roughly  torn  off,  tearing  the  skin  of  the 
lip,  the  nose,  and  the  face. 

Second  Observation. — A  pair  of  pincers  is  held  at  a  little  dis- 
tance from  my  ear,  and  rubbed  with  steel  scissors.  I  dream 
that  I  hear  the  ringing  of  bells ;  this  soon  becomes  a  tocsin, 
and  I  imagine  myself  in  the  days  of  June,  1848.  (The  time  of 
the  French  Revolution.) 

Third  Observation. — I  am  caused  to  inhale  Cologne  water. 
I  dream  I  am  in  a  perfumer's  shop;  the  idea  of  perfumes 
doubtless  awakens  the  idea  of  the  East;  I  am  in  Cairo,  in  the 
shop  of  Jean  Farina.  .  .-  .  • 

Fifth  Observation. — I  am  slightly  pinched  on  the  nape  of 
the  neck.  I  dream  that  a  blister  is  applied,  which  recalls  to  my 
mind  a  physician  who  had  treated  me  in  infancy. 

Seventh  Observation.  ....  The  words  Azar,  Castor,  Leonore, 
were  pronounced  in  my  ear ;  on  awaking  I  recollected  that  I 
had  heard  the  last  two  words,  which  I  attributed  to  one  of  the 
persons  who  had  conversed  with  me  in  my  dream.  —  FLINT'S 
Physiology  of  Man. 

The  transition-stage  between  the  dream  simple  and  the 
dream  acted  is  witnessed  in  the  spasmodic  movements  which  a 
vivid  dream  produces  in  the  limbs  or  person  of  the  sleeper. 
The  dreamer  engages  in  a  fierce  struggle,  and  twitchings  of  his 
legs  and  arms  indicate  the  feeble  response  of  body  to  the 
promptings  of  mind  removed  from  its  wonted  power  over  the 
frame.  Even  the  dog,  as  he  sleeps,  apparently  dreams  of  the 
chase,  and  gives  vent  to  his  sensations  by  the  short,  sharp  bark, 
or  sniffs  the  air,  and  starts  in  his  slumber  as  if  in  response  to 
the  activity  with  which,  in  his  dreaming,  he  is  hurrying  along 
after  the  object  of  pursuit.  .  .  .  Persons  have  been  known  to 
swim  for  a  considerable  time  in  the  somnambulistic  state  with- 
out waking  at  the  termination  of  their  journey ;  others  have 


836  THE     NERVOUS     SYSTEM. 

safely  descended  the  shaft  of  a  mine,  while  some  have  ascended 
steep  cliffs,  and  have  returned  home  in  safety  during  a  pro- 
longed sleep-vigil.  (See  p.  204.) — DR.  ANDREW  WILSON,  F.R.S.E., 
What  Dreams  are,  Made  of. 

Sleep  and  Conscience. — Edward  Everett  Hale  says  :  Never 
go  to  bed  in  any  danger  of  being  hungry.  People  are  kept 
awake  by  hunger  quite  as  much  as  by  a  bad  conscience.  Re- 
membering that  sleep  is  the  essential  force  which  starts  the 
whole  system,  decline  tea  or  coffee  within  the  last  six  hours 
before  going  to  bed.  Avoid  all  mathematics  or  intricate  study 
of  any  sort  in  the  last  six  hours.  This  is  the  stuff  dreams  are 
made  of,  and  hot  heads,  and  the  nuisances  of  waking  hours. 
Keep  your  conscience  clear.  Remember  that  because  the  work 
of  life  is  infinite,  you  can  not  do  the  whole  of  it  in  any  limited 
period  of  time,  and  that  therefore  you  may  just  as  well  leave 
off  in  one  place  as  another. 

The  Art  of  Rising  Early. — The  proper  time  to  rise  is  when 
sleep  ends.  Dozing  should  not  be  allowed.  True  sleep  is  the 
aggregate  of  sleeps,  or  is  a  state  consisting  in  the  sleeping  or 
rest  of  all  the  several  parts  of  the  organism.  Sometimes  one 
and  at  other  times  another  part  of  the  body,  as  a  whole,  may 
be  the  least  fatigued,  and  so  the  first  to  awake ;  or  the  most 
exhausted,  and  therefore  the  most  difficult  to  arouse.  The  secret 
of  good  sleep  is,  the  physiological  conditions  of  rest  being  estab- 
lished, so  to  work  and  weary  the  several  parts  of  the  organism 
as  to  give  them  a  proportionately  equal  need  of  rest  at  the  same 
moment.  To  wake  early,  and  feel  ready  to  rise,  a  fair  and 
equal  start  of  the  sleepers  should  be  secured ;  and  the  wise  self- 
manager  should  not  allow  a  drowsy  feeling  of  unconsciousness, 
or  weary  senses,  or  an  exhausted  muscular  system,  to  beguile 
him  into  the  folly  of  going  to  sleep  again  when  once  he  has 
been  aroused.  After  a  few  days  of  self-discipline,  the  man  who 
resolves  not  to  doze,  that  is,  not  to  allow  some  sleepy  part  of 
his  body  to  keep  him  in  bed  after  his  brain  has  once  awakened, 
will  find  himself,  without  knowing  why,  an  early  riser. 

Influence  of  Sunlight  (p.  207). — Light  is  an  essential  ele- 
ment in  producing  the  grand  phenomena  of  life,  though  its 
action  is  ill  understood.  Where  there  is  light  there  is  life,  and 
any  deprivation  of  this  principle  is  rapidly  followed  by  disease 


INFLUENCE     OF     SUNLIGHT.  337 

of  the  animal  frame,  and  the  destruction  of  the  mental  facul- 
ties. We  have  proof  of  this  in  the  squalor  of  those  whose  ne- 
cessities compel  them  to  labor  in  places  to  which  the  blessings 
of  sunshine  never  penetrate,  as  in  our  coal-mines,  where  men 
having  every  thing  necessary  for  health,  except  light,  exhibit  a 
singularly  unhealthy  appearance.  The  state  of  fatuity  and 
wretchedness  to  which  those  individuals  have  been  reduced,  who 
have  been  subjected  for  years  to  incarceration  in  dark  dungeons, 
may  be  referred  to  the  same  deprivation. — ROBERT  HUNT,  Poetry 
of  Science. 

Effect  of  Dungeon  Life. — "  You  can  not  imagine,  Mr.  Ken- 
nan,"  said  a  condemned  revolutionist  to  me  in  Siberia,  "the  misery 
of  prolonged  confinement  in  a  casemate  of  the  fortress  under  what 
are  known  as  dungeon  conditions.  My  casemate  was  sometimes 
cold,  generally  damp,  and  always  gloomy.  Day  after  day,  week 
after  week,  month  after  month,  I  lay  there  in  solitude,  hearing  no 
sound  save  that  of  the  high-pitched,  melancholy  bells  of  the  for- 
tress cathedral,  which  slowly  chimed  the  quarter-hours,  and  which 
always  seemed  to  say :  '  Here  thou  liest — lie  here  still.'  I  had 
absolutely  nothing  to  do  except  to  pace  my  cell  from  corner  to 
corner,  and  think.  For  a  long  time  I  used  to  talk  to  myself  in 
a  whisper;  to  repeat  softly  every  thing  in  the  shape  of  litera- 
ture that  I  could  remember,  and  to  compose  speeches  which, 
under  certain  imagined  conditions,  I  would  deliver ;  but  I  finally 
ceased  to  have  energy  enough  to  do  even  this,  and  used  to  sit 
for  hours  in  a  sort  of  stupor,  in  which,  so  far  as  I  can  now 
remember,  I  was  not  conscious  of  thinking  at  all.  Before  the 
end  of  the  first  year,  I  grew  so  weak,  mentally  and  physically, 
that  I  began  to  forget  words.  I  knew  what  ideas  I  desired  to 
express,  but  some  of  the  words  that  I  needed  had  gone  from 
me,  and  it  was  with  the  greatest  difficulty  that  I  could  recover 
them.  It  seemed  sometimes  as  if  my  own  language  were  a 
strange  one  to  me,  or  one  which,  from  long  disuse,  I  had  for- 
gotten. I  greatly  feared  insanity,  and  my  apprehension  was 
increased  by  the  fact  that  two  or  three  of  my  comrades  in  cells 
on  the  same  corridor  were  either  insane  or  subject  to  hallucina- 
tions ;  and  I  was  often  roused  at  night  and  thrown  into  a  vio- 
lent chill  of  nervous  ^excitement  by  their  hysterical  weeping, 
their  cries  to  the  guard  to  come  and  take  away  somebody,  or 


388  THE     NEKVOUS     SYSTEM. 

something  which  they  imagined  they  saw,  or  their  groans  and 
entreaties  when,  in  cases  of  violent  delirium,  they  were  strapped 
to  their  beds  by  the  gend'armes."— GEORGE  KENNAN,  in  Russian 
State  Prisoners,  The  Century,  March,  1888. 

/  The  Growth  and  Power  of  Poison  Habits  (p.  218).— In 
order  to  distinguish  a  poison-stimulant  from  a  harmless  and  nu- 
tritive substance,  Nature  has  furnished  us  three  infallible  .tests : 

1.  The  first  taste  of  every  poison  is  either  insipid  or  repul- 
sive. 

2.  The  persistent  obtrusion  of  the  noxious  substance  changes 
that  aversion  into  a  specific  craving. 

3.  The  more  or  less  pleasurable  excitement  produced  by  a 
gratification  of  that  craving  is  always  followed  by  a  depressing 
reaction.    .    .    . 

One  radical  fallacy  identifies  the  stimulant  habit  in  all  its 
disguises :  its  victims  mistake  a  process  of  irritation  for  one  of 
invigoration.  .  .  .  Sooner  or  later  the  tonic  is  sure  to  pall  while 
the  morbid  craving  remains,  and  forces  its  victims  either  to  in- 
crease the  quantity  of  the  wonted  stimulant,  or  else  to  resort  to 
a  stronger  poison.  A  boy  begins  with  ginger-beer  and  ends  in 
ginger-rum;  the  medical  "tonic"  delusion  progresses  from  malt 
extract  to  Mumford's  Elixir ;  and  the  nicotine  habit  once  intro- 
duced, the  alcohol  habit  often  follows.  The  tendency  of  every 
stimulant  habit  is  toward  a  stronger  tonic.  .  .  .  We  have  found 
that  the  road  to  the  rum-shop  is  paved  with  "mild  stimulants," 
and  that  every  bottle  of  medical  bitters  is  apt  to  get  the  vender 
a  permanent  customer.  We  have  found  that  cider  and  mild  ale 
lead  to  strong  ale,  to  lager-beer,  and  finally  to  rum,  and  the  truth 
at  last  dawns  upon  us  that  the  only  safe,  consistent,  and  effective 
plan  is  Total  Abstinence  from  all  Poisons. 

More  than  the  hunger  after  bread,  more  than  the 

frenzy  of  love  or  hatred,  the  poison-hunger  overpowers  every 
other  instinct,  even  the  fear  of  death.  Dr.  Isaac  Jennings  has 
illustrated  this  by  the  following  example:  A  clergyman  of  his 
acquaintance  attempted  to  dissuade  a  young  man  of  great  prom- 
ise from  habits  of  intemperance.  "  Hear  me  first  a  few  words," 
said  the  young  man,  "and  then  you  may  proceed.  I  am  sen- 
sible that  an  indulgence  in  this  habit  will  lead  to  the  loss  of 
property,  the  loss  of  reputation  and  domestic  happiness,  to  pre- 


THE     GROWTH     OF     POISON     HABITS.  339 

mature  death,  and  to  the  irretrievable  loss  of  my  immortal  soul ; 
and  now,  with  all  this  conviction  resting  firmly  on  my  mind  and 
flashing  over  my  conscience  like  lightning,  if  I  still  continue  to 
drink,  do  you  suppose  any  thing  you  can  say  will  deter  me  from 
the  practice?" 

Ignorance  is  a  chief  cause  of  intemperance.     The 

seductions  of  vice  would  not  mislead  so  many  of  our  young  men 
if  they  could  realize  the  significance  of  their  mistake.  There  is 
still  a  lingering  belief  that,  with  due  precaution  against  excess 
and  adulteration,  a  dram-drinker  might  "get  ahead"  of  Nature, 
and,  as  it  were,  trick  her  out  of  some  extra  enjoyment.  There 
is  no  hope  of  a  radical  reform  till  intelligent  people  have  real- 
ized the  fact  that  this  "trick"  is  in  every  instance  a  losing 
game,  entailing  penalties  which  far  outweigh  the  pleasures  that 
the  novice  may  mistake  for  enjoyments.  For  the  depression  of 
the  vital  energy  increases  with  every  repetition  of  the  stimu- 
lating process,  and  in  a  year  after  the  first  dose  all  the  "grateful 
and  exhilarating  tonics "  of  our  professional  poison-venders  can 
not  restore  the  vigor,  the  courage,  and  the  cheerfulness  which 
the  mere  consciousness  of  perfect  health  imparts  to  the  total 
abstainer.  A  great  plurality  of  all  beginners  underrate  the  dif- 
ficulty of  controlling  the  cravings  of  a  morbid  appetite.  They 
remember  that  their  natural  inclinations  at  first  opposed,  rather 
than  encouraged,  the  indulgence  ;  and  they  feel  that  at  the  pres- 
ent stage  of  its  development  they  could  abjure  the  passion 
without  difficulty.  But  they  overlook  the  fact  that  the  moral 
power  of  resistance  decreases  with  each  repetition  of  the  dose, 
and  that  the  time  will  come  when  only  the  practical  impossi- 
bility of  procuring  their  wonted  tipple  will  enable  them  to  keep 
their  pledge  of  total  abstinence.  It  is  true  that,  by  the  exercise 
of  a  constant  self-restraint,  a  person  of  great  will-force  may 
resist  the  progressive  tendency  of  the  poison  habit  and  confine 
himself  for  years  to  a  single  cigar  or  a  single  bottle  of  wine  per 
day.  .  .  .  But  the  attempt  to  resist  that  bias  will  overtask  the 
strength  of  most  individuals.  According  to  the  allegory  of  the 
Grecian  myth,  the  car  of  Bacchus  was  drawn  by  tigers ;  and  it 
is  a  significant  circumstance  that  war,  famine,  and  pestilence 
have  so  often  been  the  forerunners  of  veritable  alcohol  epidem- 
ics. .  .  .  The  explanation  is  that,  after  the  stimulant  habit  has 


340  THE     XERVOUS     SYSTEM. 

once  been  initiated,  every  unusual  depression  of  mental  or  phys- 
ical vigor  calls  for  an  increased  application  of  the  accustomed 
method  of  relief.  .  .  .    Nations  who  are  addicted  to  the  worship 

of  a  poison-god  will  use  his  temple  as  a  place  of  refuge  from 
every  calamity ;    and  children  whose  petty  ailments  have  been 
palliated  with  narcotics,   wine,  and  cordials,  will  afterward  be 
tempted  to  drown  their  greater  sorrows  in  deeper  draughts  of 
the  same  nepenthe. — FELIX  L.  OSWALD,  M.D.,  Remedies  of  Nature, 
Popular  Science  Monthly,  October  and  November,  1883. 

Dangers  from  the   Use   of  Narcotics.— It  may   seem    a 
paradox,  it  is  a  truism,  to  say  that  in  the  value  of  narcotics 
lies  their  peril.      Because  they  have  such  power  for  good,  be- 
cause the  suffering  which  they  alleviate  is  in  its  lighter  forms 
so  common,  because  neuralgia  and  sleeplessness  are  ailments  as 
familiar  to   the    present   generation   as   gout,   rheumatism,    and 
catarrh  were  to  our  grandfathers,  therefore  the  medicines  which 
immediately  relieve  sleeplessness  and  neuralgic  pain  are  among 
the  most  dangerous  possessions,  the  most  subtle  temptations  of 
civilized  life.     Every  one  of  these  drugs  has,  besides  its  instant 
and  beneficial  effect,  other  and  injurious  tendencies.     The  relief 
which  it  gives  is  purchased  at  a  certain  price ;  for,  at  each  repe- 
tition of  the  dose,  the  immediate  relief  is  lessened  or  rendered 
uncertain,  while  the  mischievous  influence  is  enhanced  and   ag- 
gravated; till,  when  the  drug  has  become  a  necessity  of  life  it 
has  lost  the   greater  part,   if  not  the   whole,  of  its  value,  and 
serves   only  to  satisfy  the  need  which  itself  alone  has  created. 
...  .   .   .     We   read  weekly  of   men   and   women  poisoned   by  an 

overdose  of  some  favorite  sedative,  burned  to  death  or  otherwise 
fatally  injured,  while  insensible  from  self-administered  ether  or 
chloroform.    ...         The  narcotist  keeps  chloroform  or  chloral 

always  at  hand,  forgetful  or  ignorant  that  one  sure  effect  of  the 
first  dose  is  to  produce  a  semi-stupor  more  dangerous  than  actual 
somnolence.  In  that  semi-stupor  the  patient  is  aware,  or  fan- 
cies, that  the  dose  has  failed.  The  pain  that  has  induced  a  lady 
to  hold  a  chloroformed  handkerchief  under  her  nostrils  returns 
while  her  will  and  her  judgment  are  half  paralyzed.  She  takes 
the  bottle  from  the  table  beside  her  bed,  intending  to  pour  an 
additional  supply  upon  her  handkerchief.  The  unsteady  hand 
perhaps  spills  a  quantity  on  the  sheet,  perhaps  sinks  with  the 


DANGERS     FROM     NARCOTICS.  341 

unstoppered  bottle  under  her  nostrils,  and  in  a  few  moments 
she  has  inhaled  enough  utterly  to  stupefy,  if  not  to  kill.  The 
sleepless  brain-worker  also  feels  that  his  usual  dose  of  chloral 
has  failed  to  bring  sleep ;  he  is  not  aware  how  completely  it 
has  stupefied  the  brain,  to  which  it  has  not  given  rest.  His 
judgment  is  gone,  so  is  his  steadiness  of  hand ;  and  he  pours 
out  a  second  and  too  often  a  fatal  dose.  .  .  .  But  the  cases 
that  end  in  a  death  terrible  to  the  family,  though  probably  in- 
volving little  or  no  suffering  to  the  victim  himself,  are  by  no 
means  the  worst.  A  life  poisoned,  paralyzed,  rendered  worth- 
less fcr  all  the  uses  of  intellectual,  rational,  we  might  almost 
say  of  human  existence,  is  worse  for  the  sufferer  himself  and' 
for  all  around  him  than  a  quick  and  painless  death ;  and  for 
one  such  death  there  must  be  twenty,  if  not  a  hundred,  instances 
of  this  worst  death  in  life.  .  .  .  The  demoralization  of  the 
narcotist  is  not,  like  that  of  the  drunkard,  rapid,  violent,  and 
palpable ;  but  gradual,  insidious,  perceptible  at  first  only  to 
close  observers  and  intimate  friends.  Here  and  there  we  find  a 
constitution  upon  which  opium  exerts  few  or  none  of  its  char- 
acteristic effects.  Such  cases  are,  of  course,  wholly  exceptional ; 
but  their  very  existence  is  a  danger  to  others,  misleading  them 
into  the  idea  that  they  may  dally  with  the  tempter  without  fall- 
ing under  its  yoke,  or  may  fall  under  that  yoke  and  find  it  a 
light  one.  I  doubt,  however,  whether  the  most  fortunate  of  its 
victims  would  encourage  the  latter  idea ;  whether  there  be  an 
opium-eater  who  would  not  give  a  limb  never  to  have  known 
what  opium-slavery  means.  .  .  .  Besides,  no  one  can  be  sure, 
or  indeed  reasonably  hope,  that  the  mischief  will  be  confined  to 
the  individual  victim.  That  the  children  of  drunkards  are  often 
predisposed  to  insanity  is  notorious ;  that  the  children  of  ha- 
bitual opium-eaters  inherit  an  unmistakable  taint,  whether  in  a 
diseased  brain,  in  morbid  cravings,  or  simply  in  a  will  too  weak 
to  resist  temptation,  is  less  notorious,  but  equally  certain. — 
PERCY  G-REG,  Narcotics  and  Stimulants,  Contemporary  Review. 

Thus  also  in  America  scarcely  a  week  passes  but  we  see 
announced  in  the  public  prints  deaths  or  suicides  resulting  from 
the  use  of  narcotics.  Now,  it  is  from  tobacco  :  A  Yale  College 
student  dies  from  excessive  smoking;  another  student  in  the 
same  college,  and  as  a  result  of  the  same  habit,  commits  suicide ; 


342  THE     NERVOUS     SYSTEM. 

a  third  young  man  is  found  dead  in  his  bed  in  New  York, 
from  heart-disease  induced  by  cigarettes ;  and  so,  month  by 
month,  and  year  by  year,  grows  in  rapid  increase  the  list  of 
tobacco-deaths. — Or,  again,  it  is  from  opium.  A  Harvard  student 
with  two  of  his  college  companions  in  search  of  a  new  sensa- 
tion, tries  opium-smoking  one  fatal  night  and  dies  before  morn- 
ing ;  a  woman  in  Ohio,  belonging  to  a  prominent  family,  dies 
at  the  age  of  thirty-three  years,  from  an  overdose  of  morphine, 
her  body  covered  with  hypodermic  scars ;  another,  once  the  re- 
spected wife  of  a  Baptist  clergyman,  becomes  a  morphine-drunk- 
ard, drifts,  step  by  step,  into  a  Central  New  York  Alms-house, 
and  there  hangs  herself;  a  third,  young,  accomplished,  and 
wealthy,  falls  first  a  victim  to  the  morphine  habit,  then  to 
opium-smoking,  finally  becomes  the  frequenter  of  a  New  York 
opium-joint,  and  so  is  lost  forever  to  home,  friends,  and  respect- 
ability.— Occasionally  it^  is  cocaine,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Chi- 
cago physician,  who,  for  the  purposes  of  investigation,  experi- 
ments with  this  new  drug  upon  himself,  his  wife,  and  finally 
upon  his  innocent  children ;  the  entire  family  being  found  un- 
conscious from  the  effects  of  the  subtle  narcotic.  These  are  but 
solitary  instances  in  an  appallingly  long  list  of  similar  cases,  most 
of  which  have  occurred  within  the  last  two  years  (1887-'88). 

Cigarette-smoking  is  chargeable  with  a  growing  demoraliza- 
tion and  mortality  among  boys  and  young  men.  It  is  no  un- 
common sight  to  see  lads  of  ten  years  old  and  under,  with  the 
irresponsibility  of  ignorant  childhood,  puffing  the  dangerous  cig- 
arette, and  thus  undermining  health  and  intellect  at  the  very 
outset  of  useful  existence.  Even  when  told  of  the  near  and  re- 
mote perils  thus  incurred,  they  scarcely  listen,  for  do  not  they 
see  their  elders  smoke  and  prosper  ?  — Most  of  them  do  not  un- 
derstand that  there  is  more  danger  to  the  young  than  to  the 
old  in  the  tobacco  habit,  more  danger  to  some  constitutions  than 
to  others,  and  more  danger  in  the  cigarette  than  even  in  the 
pipe  or  the  cigar.  Pause  a  moment  to  consider  it,  boys,  when 
you  are  tempted  to  light  the  clean-looking,  paper-covered  roll 
and  place  it  in  your  mouth.  Think  of  the  heated  smoke  irritat- 
ing the  delicate  membrane  in  your  throat,  dulling  your  brain, 
and  vitiating  the  blood  which  should  be  bounding  fresh  and  pure 
through  your  veins.  Think  of  the  many  filthy  and  diseased 


DANGERS     FROM     NARCOTICS  343 

mouths  from  which  have  been  cast  away  the  tobacco  refuse, 
picked  up  in  streets  and  public  places  to  re-appear  in  the  "Cheap 
and  Popular  Brand"  which  looks  to  you  so  innocent  and  so  at- 
tractive. It  is  astonishing,  indeed,  how  an  otherwise  cleanly  boy 
will  consent  to  defile  himself  with  these  vile  abominations.  And 
yet,  I  have  known  lads  who — not  always  with  perfect  politeness 
— would  fastidiously  refuse  "hash"  at  their  mother's  breakfast 
table,  but  who  would  shortly  afterward  serenely  place  one  of 
these  unknowable  compounds  between  their  lips  and  walk  away 
with  the  air  of  superior  manhood ! 

Of  Chloral  Hydrate,  Dr  Fothergill  remarks*  "When  this  was 
announced  with  a  flourish  of  trumpets  as  a  perfectly  innocupus 
narcotic,  the  sleepless  folk  hailed  its  advent  with  eager  acclama- 
tion. But  a  little  experience  soon  demonstrated  that  the  innoc- 
uous, harmless  drug  was  far  from  the  boon  it  was  proclaimed. 
In  fact,  the  impression  of  its  harmlessness  was  the  outcome  of 
ignorance  of  its  properties.  Death  after  death,  even  among 
medical  men  themselves,  as  well  as  non-professional  persons, 
have  already  resulted  from  the  use,  or  rather  misuse,  of  this  nar- 
cotic agent." 

The  Bromides  (of  Soda  or  Potash),  also,  should  be  used  with 
caution,  and  only  on  the  prescription  of  a  conscientious  physician. 
"The  bromide  of  potash,"  says  Percy  Greg,  "is  claimed  not  to 
produce  sleep  by  stupefaction,  like  chloral  or  opium,  but,  at 
least  in  small  doses,  to  allay  the  nervous  irritability  which  is 
often  the  sole  cause  of  sleeplessness.  But  in  larger  quantities 
and  in  its  ultimate  effects,  it  is  scarcely  less  to  be  dreaded  than 
chloral."  Overdoses  of  the  bromides  will  produce  among  other 
evil  effects  a  peculiar  eruption  upon  the  face,  which,  though  gen- 
erally temporary,  is  liable  to  re-appear  from  time  to  time 
under  certain  conditions  of  the  system,  and  especially  upon  a 
subsequent  dose,  however  dilute. 

Absinthe  is  a  compound  of  absinthium  (the  essence  of  worm- 
wood), various  aromatic  oils,  and  alcohol.  Absinthium,  taken  in 
small  doses,  induces  trembling,  stupor,  and  insensibility ;  in  larger 
doses,  epilepsy.  When,  therefore,  this  dangerous  essence  is  added 
to  alcohol,  it  strengthens  its  influence  to  specific  disease.  Ab- 
sinthe-drinking is  recognized  in  France  as  such  a  serious  vice 
that  it  has  been  officially  prohibited  in  the  army  and  navy. 


.V 


344  THE     NERVOUS     SYSTEM. 

Hasheesh  is  a  syrup  prepared  from  the  leaves  and  flowers 
of  Indian  Hemp.  Though  its  use  in  this  country  is  compara- 
tively small,  instances  are  not  unknown  in  which  reckless  or 
curious  persons  have  fatally  experimented  with  it.  As  a  med- 
icine, it  is  in  limited  use,  and  with  results  not  always  satisfac- 
tory. It  acts  in  a  peculiar  manner  upon  the  nervous  centers, 
occasioning  that  strange  condition  of  the  nervous  system  called 
catalepsy,  in  which  the  limbs  of  the  unconscious  patient  remain 
stationary  in  whatever  position  they  may  be  placed.  After  an 
average  dose  of  hasheesh,  the  subject  becomes  the  helpless  vic- 
tim of  rapidly  shifting  ideas,  a  prominent  characteristic  of  which 
is  an  entire  loss  of  judgment  as  to  time  and  place.  A  larger 
dose  produces  hallucinations  and  delirium,  with  that  distressing 
sensation  of  falling  through  endless  space  which  is  induced  in 
some  people  by  opium.* 

*  In  an  article  entitled  "An  Overdose  of  Hasheesh"  (Popular  Science 
Monthly,  February,  1884\  Miss  Mary  A.  Hungerford  gives  a  vivid  descrip- 
tion of  a  painful  experience  with  this  drug,  some  portion  of  which  is  as 
follows : 

"Being  one  of  the  grand  army  of  sufferers  from  headache,  I  took,  last 
summer,  by  order  of  my  physician,  three  small  daily  doses  of  hasheesh  in 

the  hope  of  holding  my  intimate  enemy  in  check I  grew  to  regard 

the  drug  as  a  harmless  medicine,  and  one  day,  when  I  was  assured  by  some 
familiar  symptoms  that  my  headache  was  about  to  assume  an  aggravated 
form,  I  took  a  larger  quantity  than  had  been  prescribed.  Twenty  minutes 
later  I  was  seized  with  a  strange  sinking  or  f aintness  which  gave  my  family 
so  much  alarm  that  they  telephoned  at  once  for  the  doctor. 

" One  terrible  reality — I  can  hardly  term  it  a  fancy  even  now — 

that  came  to  me  again  and  again,  was  so  painful  that  it  must,  I  fear, 
always  be  a  vividly  remembered  agony.  ...  I  died,  as  I  believed, 
although  by  a  strange  double  consciousness  I  knew  that  I  should  again  re- 
animate the  body  I  had  left.  In  leaving  it  I  did  not  soar  away,  as  one 
delights  to  think  of  the  freed  spirits  soaring.  .  .  .1  sank,  an  intangible, 
impalpable  shape,  through  the  bed,  the  floors,  the  cellar,  the  earth,  down, 
down,  downl  Like  a  fragment  of  glass  dropping  through  the  ocean,  I 
dropped  uninterruptedly  through  the  earth  and  its  atmosphere,  and  then 

fell  on  and  on  forever As  time  went  on,  and  my  dropping  through 

space  continued,  I  became  filled  with  the  most  profound  loneliness,  and  a 
desperate  fear  took  hold  of  me  that  I  should  be  thus  alone  forever  more,  and 
fall  and  fall  eternally.  .  .  There  was,  it  seemed  to  me,  a  forgotten  text 
which,  if  remembered,  would  be  the  spell  to  stop  my  fatal  falling.  I 
sought  in  my  memory  for  it,  I  prayed  to  recall  it,  I  fought  for  it  madly, 
wrestling  against  the  terrible  fate  which  seemed  to  withhold  it.  Single  words 
of  it  came  to  me  in  disconnected  mockery,  but  erased  themselves  instantane- 
ously. Mentally,  I  writhed  in  such  hopeless  agony  that,  in  thinking  of  it, 
I  wonder  I  could  have  borne  such  excess  of  emotion  and  lived I 


DANGERS     FROM     NARCOTICS.  345 

Concerning  all  these  and  other  narcotics,  it  should  never  be 
forgotten  that  they  are  true  poisons,  sold  with  the  mark  of  skull 
and  cross-bones,  useful,  like  strychnine  and  henbane,  in  the 
hands  of  a  skillful  physician,  but  fraught  with  deadly  danger 
when  otherwise  employed.  Their  private  use  is  never  safe.  The 
weak  and  nervous  invalid,  who  can  not  by  hygienic  means  build 
up  new  strength,  need  never  hope  to  gain  it  by  surreptitiously 
indulging  in  popular  narcotics.  Instead,  he  will  soon  discover  that 
he  has  but  added  to  his  list  of  ills  a  new  and  fatal  one. — E.  B.  S. 


began,  then,  without  having  reached  any  goal,  to  ascend.  As  I  rose,  a 
great  and  terrible  voice  from  a  vast  distance  pronounced  my  doom :  '  Fall, 
fall,  fall,  to  rise  again  in  hopeless  misery,  and  sink  again  in  lonely  agony  for- 
ever.' .  .  .  Then  ensued  a  wild  and  terrible  commingling  of  unsyllabled 
sounds,  so  unearthly  that  it  is  not  in  the  power  of  language  to  fitly  describe 
them.  It  was  something  like  a  mighty  Niagara  of  shrieks  and  groans,  com- 
bined with  the  fearful  din  and  crash  of  thousands  of  battles  and  the  thun- 
derous roar  of  a  stormy  sea I  fought  my  upward  way  in  an  agony 

which  resembled  nothing  so  much  as  the  terrible  moment  when,  from  stran- 
gling or  suffocation,  all  the  forces  of  life  struggle  against  death,  and  wrestle 
madly  for  another  breath.  In  place  of  the  woful  sounds  now  reigned  a  deadly 
stillness,  broken  only  at  long  but  regular  intervals  by  a  loud  report,  as  if  a 
cannon,  louder  than  any  I  ever  heard  on  earth,  were  discharged  at  my  side, 
almost  shot  into  me,  I  might  say,  for  the  sound  appeared  to  rend  me  from 
head  to  foot,  and  then  to  die  away  into  the  dark  chaos  about  me  in  strange, 
shuddering  reverberations.  Even  in  the  misery  of  my  ascending  I  was  filled 
with  a  dread  expectancy  of  the  cruel  sound.  It  gave  me  a  feeling  of  acute 
physical  torture,  with  a  lingering  intensity  that  bodily  suffering  could  not 
have.  It  was  repeated  an  incredible  number  of  times,  and  always  with  the 
same  suffering  and  shock  to  me.  At  last  the  sound  came  oftener,  but  with 
less  force,  and  I  seemed  again  nearing  the  shores  of  time.  Dimly  in  the 
far  distance  I  saw  the  room  I  had  left,  myself  lying  still  and  death-like 
upon  the  bed,  and  the  friends  watching  me Then,  silently  and  in- 
visibly I  floated  into  the  room,  and  was  one  with  myself  again. 

" '  She  is  conscious  now,'  I  heard  one  of  the  doctors  say,  and  he 

gently  lifted  the  lids  of  my  eyes  and  looked  into  them.  I  tried  my  best  to 
throw  all  the  intelligence  I  could  into  them,  and  returned  his  look  with 
one  of  recognition.  But,  even  with  my  eyes  fixed  on  his,  I  felt  myself 
going  again  in  spite  of  my  craving  to  stay.  I  longed  to  implore  the  doctor 
to  save  me,  to  keep  me  from  the  unutterable  anguish  of  falling  into  the 
vastness  and  vagueness  of  that  shadowy  sea  of  nothingness  again.  I  clasped 
my  hands  in  wild  entreaty;  I  was  shaken  by  horrible  convulsions  —  so,  at 
least,  it  seemed  to  me  at  the  time — but,  beyond  a  slight  quivering  of  the 

fingers,  no  movement  was  discernible  by  the  others For  five  hours 

I  remained  in  the  same  condition — short  intervals  of  half -consciousness  and 

then  long  lapses  into  the  agonizing  experiences  I  have  described 

Coming  out  of  the  last  trance,  I  discovered  that  the  measured  rending  re- 
port like  the  discharge  of  a  cannon,  which  attended  my  upward  way,  was 
the  throbbing  of  my  own  heart." 


346  THE     SPECIAL     SENSES. 


THE    SPECIAL   SENSES. 

An  Educated  Sense  of  Touch  (p.  230).  — Laura  Dewey 
Bridgman,  teacher  in  the  Perkins  Institute  for  the  Blind,  South 
Boston,  lost  her  sight,  hearing,  and  sense  of  smell,  when  she 
was  two  years  of  age.  At  the  age  of  eight  years  she  was  taken 
to  the  institution  where  she  yet  remains.  At  this  time,  by  follow- 
ing her  mother  around  the  house  she  had  become  familiar  with 
home  appointments,  and  by  feeling  her  mother's  hands  and 
arms  had  also  learned  to  sew  and  knit.  When  she  first  became 
an  inmate  of  the  Perkins  Institute,  she  was  bewildered  by  her 
strange  surroundings,  but  after  she  had  become  used  to  place 
and  people,  through  her  one  and  only  sense,  her  education  was 
carefully  begun.  Through  indomitable  effort  on  the  part  of  her 
preceptor,  she  was  taught  to  write,  read,  and  spell,  by  means 
of  her  fingers,  and  thus  to  exchange  sentiments  with  her  teachers 
and  with  others  skilled  in  the  mysterious  language  of  the  blind 
and  the  mute.  She  is  now  as  proficient  in  the  ordinary  branches 
of  learning  as  is  the  average  person,  possessed  of  all  the  senses. 
Her  studies  include  geography,  arithmetic,  algebra,  geometry, 
history,  and  philosophy.  She  makes  her  own  clothing,  can  run 
a  sewing-machine,  and  observes  great  neatness  in  her  dress  and 
the  arrangements  of  her  room.  Her  character  is  religious, 
and  she  has  great  success  as  a  teacher.  Not  long  since,  she 
celebrated,  on  the  same  day,  her  fifty-eighth  birthday  and 
the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  her  entrance  to  the  Perkins  Insti- 
tute. During  her  earlier  years,  it  was  her  practice  to  keep 
a  journal,  and  she  now  has  about  forty  manuscript  books  of 
her  own  making.  She  has  also  written  three  autobiographical 
sketches,  several  poems,  and  is  an  accomplished  correspondent. 
When  Miss  Bridgman  expresses  pleasure,  she  clasps  her  hands 
and  smiles.  So  keen  and  refined  are  her  sensibilities,  that 
it  is  said  she  can,  in  a  small  way,  appreciate  the  beauty  of 
music  by  means  of  the  sound  vibrations  on  the  floor.  —  MRS. 
GEORGE  ARCHIBALD. 

The  Nose  (p.  232).— The  Anatomy  of  the  Nose.— Probably 
most  of  us  look  upon  the  nose  as  a  double  hole  in  the  head,  by 
which  we  get,  with  more  or  less  acutehess,  a  sense  of  smell,  and 


THE     NOSE.  347 

through  which  we  occasionally  breathe.  The  intricate  mechanism, 
and  the  skillful  adaptation  of  means  to  end,  which,  in  common 
with  the  other  organs  of  special  sense,  it  exhibits,  naturally  do 
not  reveal  themselves  to  any  but  the  students  of  anatomy  and 
physiology.  Its  fourteen  bones  are  probably  better  hidden  than 
any  other  fourteen  bones  of  the  body,  and  assist  in  converting 
what  would  otherwise  be  a  mere  channel  of  communication, 
into  a  series  of  cavities  designed  and  adapted  for  particular 
purposes.  The  arch  of  four  bones  which  forms  the  bridge  of 
the  nose,  and  which  is  of  such  strength  as  to  enable  the  gym- 
nast of  the  circus  to  perform  the  feat  of  supporting  with  it  a 
man  on  a  ladder,  is  pieced  on  with  cartilage  to  form  the  nos- 
trils, through  which  the  nose  communicates  with  the  outer  air. 
Similar  openings  behind  connect  it  with  the  upper  and  posterior 
parts  of  the  mouth.  The  space  between  these  anterior  and  pos- 
terior openings  makes  a  large  chamber,  divided  by  a  vertical 
wall  into  halves,  each  of  which  is  still  further  separated  into 
three  irregular  cavities  by  three  bones,  called  spongy,  from  the 
porosity  and  delicacy  of  their  texture.  The  ceiling  of  these 
chambers  is  formed  by  a  bone  of  the  thinness  of  paper,  upon 
which  lies  the  front  part  of  the  brain, — a  fact  the  Egyptians 
made  use  of  in  embalming  their  corpses,  easily  crushing  this 
bone,  and  extracting  the  brain  through  the  nostrils.  This  bone 
is  called  cribriform  (sieve-like),  because  it  is  perforated  by  many 
minute  holes,  through  which,  from  the  olfactory  bulbs  (special- 
ized parts  of  the  brain  in  which  is  resident  the  capacity  of 
smell)  that  rest  on  its  upper  surface,  issue  the  delicate  filaments 
of  the  olfactory  nerves,  to  spread  themselves  over  the  lining 
membrane  01  the  two  upper  spongy  bones.  It  is  in  the  upper 
chambers  of  the  nose,  therefore,  that  the  function  of  smell  is 
performed ;  the  nerves  that  supply  the  lower  spongy  bone  being 
entirely  unconnected  with  the  organs  of  smell.  Over  these  lat- 
ter, however,  sweep  in  and  out  the  currents  of  air  when  the 
act  of  respiration  is  properly  carried  out,  and  it  is  these  that 
are  especially  concerned  in  its  abnormal  performance.  Usually 
but  a  very  little  of  the  volume  of  air  that  traverses  the  lower 
chamber  of  the  nose  has  any  influence  upon  its  upper  regions ; 
and  therefore,  when  our  attention  is  attracted  by  an  odor,  we 
sniff,  in  order  to  bring  a  larger  quantity  of  air  into  contact 


348  THE     SPECIAL     SENSES. 

with  the  higher  parts  of  the  nose,  or  olfactory  cavities,  where 
odors  are  perceived. 

But  the  half  has  not  been  told  of  the  anatomical  and  physi- 
ological arrangements  of  the  nose.  By  minute  openings  its 
chambers  have  communication  with  many  other  parts  of  the 
head, — with  the  hollow  that  forms  the  greater  part  of  the  cheek- 
bone ;  with  the  eye  by  a  minute  spout  that  carries  off  the 
lachrymal  secretion,  unless  the  tears  are  so  abundant  as  to  roll 
down  the  cheeks  ;  with  the  front  of  the  roof  of  the  mouth  ; 
with  the  abundant  cells  of  the  bone  that  makes  the  forehead, 
and  the  congestion  of  whose  lining  membrane  probably  accounts 
for  the  severe  headache  that  so  often  accompanies  and  aggra- 
vates a  "cold  in  the  head."  The  gateway  to  the  inner  air- 
passages,  its  abundant  surfaces  raise  the  air  inspired  to  the 
temperature  of  the  body,  supply  it  with  the  moisture  it  lacks,  and 
sift  from  it  more  or  less  of  the  mechanical  impurities  with 
which  the  atmosphere  of  our  houses  and  shops  is  laden. — 
MAURICE  D.  CLARKE,  M.D.,  Popular  Science  News,  April,  1888. 

Smell  Necessary  to  Taste. — What  we  are  in  the  habit  of 
calling  a  "taste,"  is  in  most  cases  a  compound  of  smell,  taste, 
temperature,  and  touch — these  four  sensations  ranking  in  gas- 
tronomic importance  in  the  order  in  which  they  are  here  named. 
.  .  .  Amusing  experiments  may  be  made,  showing  that  without 
the  sense  of  smell  it  is  commonly  quite  impossible  to  distinguish 
between  different  articles  of  food  and  drink.  Blindfold  a  person 
and  make  him  clasp  his  nose  tightly,  then  put  successively  into 
his  mouth  small  pieces  of  beef,  mutton,  veal,  and  pork,  and  it 
is  safe  to  predict  that  he  will  not  be  able  to  tell  one  morsel 
from  another.  The  same  result  will  be  obtained  with  chicken, 
turkey,  and  duck ;  with  pieces  of  almond,  walnut,  and  hazel- 
nut  ;  with  slices  of  apple,  peach,  and  pear ;  or  with  different 
kinds  of  cheese,  if  care  be  taken  that  such  kinds  are  chosen  as 
do  not,  by  their  peculiar  composition,  betray  their  identity 
through  the  nerves  of  touch  in  the  mouth.  To  hold  an  article 
of  food  under  the  nose  at  table  would  be  justly  considered  a 
breach  of  etiquette.  But  there  is  a  second  way  of  smelling,  of 
which  most  people  are  quite  unconscious,  viz.,  by  exhaling  through 
the  nose  while  eating  and  drinking.  ...  It  is  well  known  that 
only  a  small  portion  of  the  mucou's  membrane  which  lines  the 


THE     NOSE.  349 

nostrils  is  the  seat  of  the  endings  of  the  nerves  of  smell.  In 
ordinary  expiration,  the  air  does  not  touch  this  olfactory  region, 
but  by  a  special  effort  it  can  be  turned  into  that  direction.  .  .  . 
Instinct  teaches  most  persons  while  eating  to  guide  the  air,  im- 
pregnated with  the  fragrance  of  the  food,  to  a  part  of  the  nos- 
trils different  from  that  used  during  ordinary  exhalation ;  but, 
being  unaccustomed  to  psychologic  analysis  of  their  sensations, 
they  remain  quite  unconscious  of  this  proceeding,  and  are,  in- 
deed, in  the  habit  of  confusing  their  sensations  of  taste,  smell, 
touch,  and  temperature  in  a  most  absurd  manner 

In  trying  to  ascertain  by  experiment  how  far  smell,  touch, 
and  temperature  enter  into  this  compound  esnsation,  popularly 
known  as  "taste,"  it  is  best  to  make  use  of  the  pungent  condi- 
ments. Mustard  and  horse-radish,  for  example,  have  little  or 
no  taste,  but. reserve  their  pungent  effect  for  the  mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  nose  during  expiration.  It  is  an  advantage  to 
know  this,  for  if  care  is  taken  to  breathe  only  through  the 
mouth,  we  need  no  longer  prepare  to  shed  tears  every  time  we 
help  ourselves  to  the  mustard.  The  pungent  quality  of  mustard, 
the  fiery  quality  of  ginger,  and  the  cool  sensation  in  the  mouth 
after  eating  peppermint,  are  due  to  the  nerves  of  touch  and 
temperature,  which  are  commonly  classed  as  one  sense,  though 
they  are  quite  as  distinct  sensations  as  sight  and  hearing,  or 
taste  and  smell.  .  .  »-r 

There  are  two  ways  in  which  the  effort  to  extract  all  its 
fragrance  from  a  morsel  of  food  confers  a  benefit. 

(1.)  It  is  necessary  to  keep  the  morsel  in  the  mouth  as  long 
as  possible.  Now  the  habit  thus  formed  of  eating  very  slowly 
is  of  the  utmost  importance,  for  if  farinaceous  articles  of  food 
are  swallowed  before  the  saliva  has  had  time  to  act  on  them, 
they  are  little  better  than  so  much  waste  material  taken  into 
the  system ;  and  if  meat  is  not  thoroughly  masticated,  the 
stomach  is  overloaded  with  work  which  should  have  been  done 
by  the  teeth  ;  the  result,  in  either  case,  is  dyspepsia.  It  has 
been  suggested  that  Mr.  Gladstone  owes  his  remarkable  physical 
vigor  to  certain  rules  for  chewing  food,  which  he  adopted  in 
1848,  and  to  which  he  has  adhered  ever  since.  "He  had 
always,"  we  are  told,  "paid  great  attention  to  the  requirements 
of  Nature,  but  he  then  laid  down  as  a  rule  for  his  children  that 


350  THE     SPECIAL     SENSES. 

thirty-two  bites  should  be  given  to  each  mouthful  of  meat,  and 
a  somewhat  lesser  number  to  bread,  fish,  etc." 

(2.)  Besides  this  indirect  advantage  resulting  from  the  effort 
to  get  at  the  fragrant  odors  of  food,  there  is  a  still  more  re- 
markable direct  advantage.  It  is  one  of  the  most  curious 
psychologic  facts  that  odors  exert  a  strong  influence  on  our 
system,  either  exhilarating  or  depressing.  While  an  unpleasant 
odor  may  cause  a  person  to  faint,  the  fumes  of  the  smelling- 
bottle  will  restore  him  to  consciousness.  The  magic  and  value 
of  gastronomic  odors  lies  in  this,  that  they  stimulate  the  flow 
of  saliva  and  other  alimentary  juices,  thus  making  sure  that 
the  food  eaten  will  be  thoroughly  utilized  in  renovating  the 
system. — HENRY  T.  FINCK,  in  "  The  Gastronomic  Value  of  Odors." 

Hygiene  of  the  Ear  (p.  236).—  Never  Box  a  Child's  Ear.— 
Children  and  grown  persons  alike  may  be  entirely  deafened  by 
falls  or  heavy  blows  upon  the  head.  Boxing  the  ears  produces 
a  similar  effect,  though  more  slowly  and  in  less  degree,  and  tends 
to  dull  the  sensibility  of  the  nerve,  even  if  it  does  not  hurt  the 
membrane.  I  knew  a  youth  who  died  from  a  terrible  disease 
of.  the  ear.  There  had  been  a  discharge  from  it  since  he  was  a 
child.  Of  course  his  hearing  had  been  dull ;  and  his  father  had 
often  boxed  Ms  ear  for  inattention  1  Most  likely  that  boxing  on 
the  ear,  diseased  as  it  was,  had  much  to  do  with  his  death. 
And  this  brings  me  to  the  second  point.  Children  should  never 
be  blamed  for  being  inattentive,  until  it  has  been  found  out 
whether  they  are  not  a  little  deaf.  This  is  easily  done  by  plac- 
ing them  at  a  few  yards'  distance,  and  trying  whether  they  can 
understand  what  is  said  to  them  in  a  rather  low  tone  of  voice. 
Each  ear  should  be  tried,  while  the  other  is  stopped  by  the 
finger.  Three  things  should  be  remembered  here  :  1.  That  slight 
degrees  of  deafness,  often  lasting  only  for  a  time,  are  very  com- 
mon among  children,  especially  during  or  after  colds.  2.  That 
a  slight  deafness,  which  does  not  prevent  a  person  from  hearing 
when  he  is  expecting  to  be  spoken  to,  will  make  him  very  dull 
to  what  he  is  not  expecting.  3.  That  there  is  a  kind  of  deaf- 
ness in  which  a  person  can  hear  pretty  well  while  listening,  but 
is  really  very  hard  of  hearing  when  not  listening. 

Avoid  Direct  Draughts  in  the  Ear.—  There  are  some  expos- 
ures especially  to  be  guarded  against.  One  is  sitting  or  driving 


HYGIENE     OF     THE     EAR.  351 

with  the  ear  exposed  to  a  side  wind.  Deafness  has  also  been 
known  to  come  from  letting  rain  or  sleet  drive  into  the  ear. 

Do  not  Remove  the  Ear-wax.  —  ^  ought  to  be  understood 
that  the  passage  of  the  ear  does  not  require  cleaning  by  us. 
Nature  undertakes  that  task,  and,  in  the  healthy  state,  fulfills  it 
perfectly.  Her  means  for  cleansing  the  ear  is  the  wax.  Perhaps 
the  reader  has  never  wondered  what  becomes  of  the  ear-wax. 
I  will  tell  him.  It  dries  up  into  thin  fine  scales,  and  these  peel 
off,  one  by  one,  from  the  surface  of  the  passage,  and  fall  out 
imperceptibly,  leaving  behind  them  a  perfectly  clean,  smooth 
surface.  In  health  the  passage  of  the  ear  is  never  dirty ;  but, 
if  we  attempt  to  clean  it,  we  infallibly  make  it  so.  Washing 
the  ear  out  frequently  with  soap  and  water  keeps  the  wax  moist 
when  it  ought  to  become  dry  and  scaly,  increases  its  quantity 
unduly,  and  makes  it  absorb  the  dust  with  which  the  air  always 
abounds.  But  the  most  hurtful  thing  is  introducing  the  corner 
of  the  towel,  screwed  up,  and  twisting  it  round.  This  does  more 
harm  to  ears  than  all  other  mistakes  together.  It  drives  down 
the  wax  upon  the  membrane,  much  more  than  it  gets  it  out. 
But  this  plan  does  much  more  mischief  than  merely  pressing 
down  the  wax.  It  irritates  the  passage,  and  makes  it  cast  off 
small  flakes  of  skin,  which  dry  up,  and  become  extremely  hard, 
and  these  also  are  pressed  down  upon  the  membrane.  Often  it 
is  not  only  deafness  which  ensues,  but  pain  and  inflammation, 
and  then  matter  is  formed  which  the  hard  mass  prevents  from 
escaping,  and  the  membrane  becomes  permanently  diseased. 

The  Eustachian  Tube,  — The  use  of  this  tube  is  twofold. 
First,  it  supplies  the  drum  with  air,  and  keeps  the  membrane 
exactly  balanced,  and  free  to  move,  with  equal  air-pressure  on 
each  side ;  and,  secondly,  it  carries  off  any  fluid  which  may  be 
in  the  drum,  and  prevents  it  from  being  choked  by  its  own 
moisture.  It  is  not  always  open,  however,  but  is  opened  during 
the  act  of  swallowing,  by  a  little  muscle  which  is  attached  to  it 
just  as  it  reaches  the  throat.  Most  persons  can  distinctly  feel 
that  this  is  the  case,  by  gently  closing  the  nose  and  swallowing, 
when  a  distinct  sensation  is  felt  in  the  ears.  This  sensation  is 
due  to  a  little  air  being  drawn  out  of  the  ears  through  the  open 
tube  during  swallowing ;  and  it  lasts  for  a  few  minutes,  unless 
the  air  is  again  restored  by  swallowing  with  the  nose  unclosed, 


352  THE     SPECIAL     SENSES. 

which  allows  for  the  moment  a  free  communication  between  the 
ear  and  the  throat.  We  thus  see  a  reason  for  the  tube  being 
closed.  If  it  were  always  open,  all  the  sounds  produced  in  the 
throat  would  pass  directly  into  the  drum  of  the  ear,  and  totally 
confuse  us.  We  should  hear  every  breath,  and  live  in  a  constant 
bewilderment  of  internal  sounds.  At  the  same  time  the  closure, 
being  but  a  light  contact  of  the  walls  of  the  tube,  easily  allows 
a  slight  escape  of  air  from  the  drum,  and  thus  not  only  facil-- 
itates  and  regulates  the  oscillations  of  the  air  before  the  vibrat- 
ing membrane,  but  provides  a  safety-valve,  to  a  certain  extent, 
against  the  injurious  influence  of  loud  sounds. 

The  chief  use  of  the  Eustachian  tube  is  to  allow  a  free  in- 
terchange of  air  between  the  ear  and  the  throat,  and  it  is  very 
important  that  its  use  in  this  respect  should  be  understood. 
Persons  who  go  down  in  diving-bells  soon  begin  to  feel  a  great 
pressure  in  the  ears,  and,  if  the  depth  is  great,  the  feeling 
becomes  extremely  painful.  This  arises  from  the  fact  that  in 
the  diving-bell  the  pressure  of  the  air  is  very  much  increased, 
in  order  to  balance  the  weight  of  the  water  above  ;  and  thus  it 
presses  with  great  force  upon  the  membrane  of  the  drum,  which, 
if  the  Eustachian  tube  has  been  kept  closed,  has  only  the  ordi- 
nary uncompressed  air  on  the  inner  side  to  sustain  it.  It  is  there- 
fore forced  inward  and  put  upon  the  stretch,  and  might  be  even 
broken.  Many  cases,  indeed,  have  occurred  of  injury  to  the  ear, 
producing  permanent  deafness,  from  descents  in  diving-beDs, 
undertaken  by  persons  ignorant  of  the  way  in  which  the  ear  is 
made ;  though  the  simple  precaution  of  frequent  swallowing 
suffices  to  ward  off  all  mischief.  For,  if  the  Eustachian  tube  is 
thus  opened,  again  and  again,  as  the  pressure  of  the  outside  air 
increases,  the  same  compressed  air  that  exists  outside  passes 
also  into  the  inside  of  the  drum,  and  the  membrane  is  equally 
pressed  upon  from  both  sides  by  the  air,  and  so  is  free  from 
strain.  The  same  precaution  is  necessary  in  ascending  lofty 
mountains. — DR.  JAMES  HINTON. 

The  Colored  Curtain  in  the  Eye  (p.  238).— This  ring-like 
curtain  in  the  eye,  of  gray,  green,  bluish-green,  brown,  and 
other  colors,  is  one  among  the  very  many  remarkable  con- 
trivances of  the  organic  world.  The  eye  can  not  bear  the  en- 
trance of  too  much  light,  and  the  colored  curtain  so  regulates 


THE     COLORED     CURTAIN     IK     THE     EYE.     353 

its  own  movements  as  to  serve  this  requirement.  The  dark 
circular  aperture  in  the  center,  known  as  the  pupil,  is  conse- 
quently forever  altering  in  size  ;  on  a  bright,  sunshiny  day,  out 
in  the  open,  it  may  be  only  the  size  of  a  pin's  head,  but  at 
night,  when  there  is  no  light  stronger  than  starlight,  it  is  even 
bigger  than  a  pea.  The  eye  curtain  is  fixed  at  its  outer  edge, 
leaving  the  inner  edge  to  contract  or  expand,  which  it  does 
automatically  and  quite  independent  of  the  will,  ever  preserving 
its  circular  outline.  Its  movements  may  be  watched  in  a 
variety  of  ways,  some  of  which  we  shall  describe. 

The  common  way  of  watching  the  movements  of  the  iris  is 
to  regard  it  closely  in  a  looking-glass  while  the  amount  of  light 
entering  the  eyes  is  varied.  Place  yourself  before  a  looking- 
glass  and  with  your  face  to  the  window.  Probably  the  iris 
will  be  expanded,  and  there  will  only  be  a  very  small  opening 
or  pupil  in  the  center.  Now  shut  one  eye  suddenly,  while  nar- 
rowly watching  the  other  in  the  glass  all  the  time.  At  the 
moment  the  light  is  cut  off  from  one  eye,  the  iris  of  the  other 
contracts  or  is  drawn  up  so  as  to  enlarge  the  pupil.  This 
shows  that  there  is  a  remarkable  interdependence  between  the 
curtains  of  the  two  eyes,  as  well  as  that  they  are  affected  by 
variations  in  the  quantity  of  light  falling  on  them. 

Perhaps  one  of  the  most  interesting  ways  of  watching  the 
movements  of  these  sympathetic  eye-curtains  is  one  which  may  be 
followed  while  you  are  out  walking  on  the  street  some  dark  win- 
ter night.  A  gas-lamp  seen  at  a  distance  is,  comparatively  speak- 
ing, a  point  of  light,  with  bars  of  light  emanating  from  it  in 
many  directions.  These  bars,  which  give  the  peculiar  spoked 
appearance  to  a  star,  are  probably  formed  by  optical  defects  of 
the  lens  within  the  eye,  or  by  the  tear  fluid  on  the  exterior 
surface  of  the  eye,  or  by  a  combination  of  all  these  causes.  Be 
that  as  it  may,  the  lengths  of  the  spokes  of  light  are  limited  by 
the  inner  margin  of  the  eye-curtain;  'if  the  curtain  be  drawn 
up,  then  the  spokes  are  long ;  if  the  curtain  be  let  down,  or, 
in  other  words,  if  the  pupil  be  very  small  and  contracted,  then 
one  can  not  see  any  spokes  at  all.  Hence,  as  I  look  at  a  distant 
gas-light,  with  its  radiating  golden  spokes,  I  am  looking  at 
something  which  will  give  me  a  sure  indication  of  any  move- 
ments of  the  eye-curtains.  I  strike  a  match  and  allow  its  light 


354  THE     SPECIAL     SENSES. 

to  fall  into  the  eyes ;  the  spokes  of  the  distant  gas-lamp  have 
retreated  into  the  point  of  flame  as  if  by  magic ;  as  I  take  the 
burning  match  away  from  before  my  eyes,  the  spokes  of  the 
gas-lamp  venture  forth  again.  The  experiment  may  be  utilized 
to  see  how  much  light  is  required  to  move  the  window-curtains 
of  the  eyes.  Suppose  you  are  walking  toward  two  gas-lamps, 
A  and  B;  B  about  fifty  yards  behind  A.  If  you  steadfastly 
look  at  B  and  at  the  golden  spokes  apparently  issuing  from  it, 
you  may  make  these  spokes  a  test  of  how  soon  the  light  of  A 
will  move  your  iris.  As  you  gradually  approach  A,  you  come 
at  last  to  a  position  where  its  light  is  strong  enough  to  make 
the  spokes  of  B  begin  to  shorten ;  a  little  nearer  still  and  they 
vanish  altogether.  I  have  found  that  about  a  third  of  the  light 
which  is  competent  to  contract  the  pupil  very  markedly  will 
serve  to  commence  its  movement. — WILLIAM  ACKROYD. 

Purkinje's  Figures  (p.  222).— Stand  in  a  dark  room  with  a 
lighted  candle  in  hand.  Shutting  the  left,  hold  the  candle  very 
near  the  right  eye,  within  three  or  four  inches,  obliquely  out- 
ward and  forward,  so  that  the  light  shall  strongly  illuminate 
the  retina.  Now  move  the  light  about  gently,  upward,  down- 
ward, back  and  forth,  while  you  gaze  intently  on  the  wall  op- 
posite. Presently  the  field  of  view  becomes  dark  from  the  in- 
tense impression  of  the  light,  and  then,  as  you  move  the  light 
about,  there  appears  projected  on  the  wall  and  covering  its 
whole  surface,  a  shadowy,  ghost-like  image,  like  a  branching, 
leafless  tree,  or  like  a  great  bodiless  spider  with  many  branch- 
ing legs.  "What  is  it?  It  is  an  exact  but  enlarged  image  of  the 
blood-vessels  of  the  retina.  These  come  in  at  the  entrance  of 
the  optic  nerve,  ramify  in  the  middle  layer,  and  therefore  in 
the  strong  light  cast  their  shadows  on  the  bacillary  layer  of 
the  retina.  The  impression  of  these  shadows  is  projected  outward 
into  the  field  of  view,  and  seen  there  as  an  enlarged  shadowy 
image.  These  have  been  called  Purkinje's  Figures,  from  the 
discoverer. — PROF.  JOSEPH  LE  CONTE,  in  Sight. 


XI. 

APPENDIX. 


QUESTIONS   FOR   CLASS   USE. 


The  questions  include  the  Notes  and  the  Selected  Readings.    The  figures  refer  to  the 

pages. 


INTRODUCTION. 

ILLUSTRATE  the  value  of  physiological  knowledge.  Why 
should  physiology  be  studied  in  youth?  When  are  our  habits 
formed?  How  do  habits  help  us?  Why  should  children  prize 
the  lessons  of  experience?  How  does  Nature  punish  a  violation 
of  her  laws  ?  Name  some  of  Nature's  laws.  What  is  the  penalty 
of  their  violation?  Name  some  bad  habits  and  their  punish- 
ments Some  good  habits  and  their  rewards.  How  do  the  young 
ruin  their  health?  Compare  one's  constitution  with  a  deposit  in 
the  bank.  Can  one  in  youth  lay  up  health  as  he  can  money  for 
middle  or  old  age?  Is  not  the  preservation  of  one's  health  a 
moral  duty?  What  is  suicide? 


THE    SKELETON. 

3.  How  many  bones  are  there  in  the  body?    Is  the  number 
fixed?    Is  the  length  of  the  different  bones  proportional?    What 
is  an  organ?    A  function?    Name  the  three  uses  of  the  bones. 
Why  do  the  bones  have  such  different  shapes? 

4.  Why  are  certain  bones  hollow  ?    Bound  ?    Illustrate.     Com- 
pare  the    resisting    property  of   bone  with   that    of    solid  oak. 
What   is   the   composition  of  bone?     How  does  it  vary?     How 
can  you  remove  the  mineral  matter  ?    The  animal  matter  ?    Why 
is  a  burned  bone  white, and  porous?    What  food  do  dogs  find  in 
bones  ? 


358  QUESTIONS     FOE     CLASS     USE. 

5.  What  is  the  use  of  each  of  the  constituents  of  a  bone? 
What  is  " bone-black"?    What  is  ossification?    Why  are  not  the 
bones   of  children   as  easily  broken  as  those  of  aged  persons? 
Why  do  they  unite  so  much  quicker?    What  are  the  fontanelles? 

6.  Describe  the  structure  of  a  bone.     What  is  the   object  of 
the  filling?    Why  doe's  the  amount  vary  in  different   parts  of  a 
bone?    What  is  the  appearance  of  a  bone  seen  through  a  mi- 
croscope ? 

7.  What  is  the  periosteum?    Is  a  bone  once  removed  ever 
restored?    What  are  the  lacunae?    The  Haversian  canals?    Why 
so  called?    A.ns.   From  their  discoverer,  Havers.     Define  a  bone.* 
What  occupies  the  lacunae?     Ans.   The  bone-cells  (osteoblasts). 
How  do  bones  grow? 

8.  Illustrate.     How  does  a  broken  bone  heal?    How  rapidly 
is  bone  produced?     Illustrate.     Objects  of  "splints"?     Describe 
ho\\r  a  joint  is  packed.     Lubricated. 

9.  How   are   the   bones    tied    together?    What   is    a   tissue? 
Illustrate.      Name   the    three    general    divisions    of   the    bones. 
What  is  the  object  of  the  skull?   Which  bone  is  movable?    How 
is  the  lower  jaw  hinged?    Describe  the  construction  of  the  skull. 
What  is  a  suture? 

10.  Tell  how  the  peculiar  form  and  structure  of  the  skull 
adapt  it  for  its  use.  \  Illustrate  the  impenetrability  of  the  skull. 

11.  Describe    the    experiment    of   the    balls.     What    does    it 
show  ?    What  two  cavities  are  in  the  trunk  ?    Name  its  principal 
bones.     Describe  the  spine. 

12.  What   is   the    object    of   the    processes?     Of   the    pads? 
Why  is  a  man  shorter  at  night  than  in  the  morning  ?  \  Describe 
the  perfection  of  the  spine. 

13.  Describe  the   articulation   of   the   skull   with   the   spine. 
Why  is  the  atlas  so  called? 

14.  Describe   the   ribs.      What    is  the   natural  form   of   the 
chest?     Why  is  it  made  in  separate  pieces?     How  does  the  ob- 
lique position  of  the  ribs  aid  in  respiration?    (See  note,  p.  80.) 

15.  How  do  the  hip-bones  give  solidity?    What  two  sets  of 

*  Bone  structure  may  be  summarized  as  follows :  A  bone  is  a  collection 
of  Haversian  elements,  or  rods.  An  Haversian  element  consists  of  a  tube  sur- 
rounded by  lamella,  which  contain  lacuna,  connected  by  canaliculi.—DR.  T.  B. 
STOWELL. 


THE     SKELETON.  359 

limbs  branch  from  the  trunk?    State  their  mutual  resemblance. 
Name  the  bones  of  the  shoulder.  ('Describe  the  collar-bone. 

16.  Describe  the  shoulder-blade.     Can  you  describe  the  in- 
direct articulation  of  the  shoulder-blade  with  the  trunk  ?    Name 
the  bones  of  the  arm.     Describe  the  shoulder-joint.     The  elbow- 
joint.  / 

17.  Describe  the  wrist.    Name  the  bones  of  the  hand.     How 
many    bones    in    the    fingers?      The    thumb?     "What    gives    the 
thumb  its  freedom  of  motion? 

18.  19.   Name  and    describe    the  fingers.      In  what  lies  the 
perfection    of   the   hand?     How  do   the    gestures   of   the  hand 
enforce  our  ideas  and  feelings?     Describe  the  hip-joint.     What 
gives  the  upper  limbs  more  freedom  of  motion  than  the  lower? 
How  does  the  pressure  of  the  air  aid  us  in  walking?    Illustrate. 

20.  Name  the  bones  of  the  lower  limbs.     Describe  the  knee- 
joint.    The  patella.    What  is  the  use  of  the  fibula?     Can  you 
show  how  the  lower  extremity  of  the  fibula,  below  its  juncture 
with  the  tibia,  is  prolonged  to  form  a  part  of  the  ankle-joint? 
Name  the  bones  of  the  foot.     What  is  the  use  of  the  arch  of 
the  foot?    What  makes  the  step  elastic?    Describe  the  action  of 
the  foot  as  we  step. 

21.  In  graceful  walking,  should  the  toes  or  the  heel  touch 
the  ground  first  ?    What  are  the  causes  of  deformed  feet  ?    What 
is  the  natural  position  of  the  big  toe?    Did  you  ever  see  a  big 
toe  lying  in  a  straight  line  with  the  foot,  as  shown  in  statuary 
and  paintings  ?    How  should  we  have  our  boots  and  shoes  made  ? 
What  are  the  effects  of  high  heels?    Of  narrow  heels?    Of  nar- 
row toes?    Of  tight-laced  boots?    Of  thin  soles?    What  are  the 
rickets?     Cause  of  this  disease?     Cure?     Is  there  any  provision 
for  remedying  defects  in  the  body?     Name  one. 

O32,  23.  What  is  a  felon?  Cure?  Cause  of  bow-legs?  How 
can  they  be  prevented  ?  Causes  of  spinal  curvature  ?  Cure  ? 
What  is  the  correct  position  in- sitting  at  one's  desk?  Is  there 
any  necessity  for  walking  and  sitting  erect?  Any  advantage 
aside  from  health?  Describe  the  bad  effects  of  a  stooping  posi- 
tion. What  is  a  sprain  ?  Why  does  it  need  special  care  ?  What 
is  a  dislocation  ?  How  is  it  generally  caused  ?  How  soon  should 
it  be  treated? 


360  QUESTIONS     FOR     CLASS     USE. 

269.  What  relation  does  man,  in  his  general  structure,  bear 
to  other  vertebrates?    Mention  some  marked  physical  peculiar- 
ities which  distinguish  him  from  the  lower  mammals. 

270,  271.   Describe  the  state  of  a  fracture  a  week  after  its 
occurrence.     What  is  this  new  formation   called?    What  marks 
the  termination  of  the  first  stage  of  curative  progress?    How  do 
the  broken  ends  of  the  bone  now  appear?    What  is  the  state  of 
the  fracture  at  the  end  of  the  second  stage?  What  is  the  condi- 
tion of  the  callus  at  this  time  ?    Describe  the  third  and  last  series 
of  changes.     Is  the   process  of  union  completed   sooner  in  old 
people   or   in   young?    In   the   upper  or  lower  extremities?    In 
smaller  animals  or  man?    What  length   of  time  is  required  to 
heal  a  broken  arm?    A  broken  leg? 

272.  What    gives    the    human   hand   its   peculiar    prehensile 
power?    What   advantage  has  the  human  thumb  over  that  of 
the    ape?    Compare    the    foot    of   man   with    that   of   the    ape. 
What  peculiarity  of  the  foot  is  particularly  noticeable  in  man? 
Contrast  the  function  of  the  great  toe  in  man  and  in  the  ape. 

273.  Are  the  toes  naturally  flexible?    How  are  their  powers 
crippled  ?    Give  an  instance  in  which  the  toes  were  trained  to  do 
the  work  of  the  fingers. 

274.  Why  are  an  elastic  step  and  a  graceful  carriage  such 
rare  accomplishments?    What  is  the  natural  shape  of  the  foot? 
Which  is  the  longer,  the   great  toe  or  the  second  toe?    Is  an 
even-sided  symmetry  necessary  to  the  beauty  of  a  boot? 


THE    MUSCLES. 

29.  What  relations  do  the  skeleton  and  the  muscles  bear  to 
each  other?      How  is  the  skeleton    concealed?     Why  is  it   the 
image  of  death?    What  are  the  muscles?    How  many  are  there ? 
What  peculiar  property  have  they?    Name  other  properties  of 
muscles.     Ans.   Tonicity,  elasticity. 

30.  How  are   they  arranged?     Where   is   the   biceps?     The 
triceps?      How    do    the    muscles    move    the    limbs?      Illustrate. 
What  is  the  cause  of  squinting?    Cure?    (See  p.  244.) 

31.  Name  and  define  the  two  kinds   of   muscles.      Illustrate 
each.    What   is   the  structure  of  a  muscle?     Of  what  is  a  fibril 


THE     MUSCLES.  361 

itself    composed?     How  does  the    peculiar   construction  of   the 
muscle  confer  strength? 

32.  Describe  the  tendons.    What  is  their  use?    Illustrate  the 
advantages  of  this  mode  of  attachment. 

33.  What  two  special  arrangements  of  the  tendons  in  the 
hand?     Their  use?     How  is  the   rotary  motion  of  the  eye  ob- 
tained ? 

34.  35.   What    is    a    lever?      Describe    the   three    classes    of 
levers.      Illustrate  each.      Describe  the  head  as  a  lever.      What 
parts  of  the  body  illustrate  the  three  kinds  of  levers?     Give  an 
illustration  of  the  second  class  of  levers.     The  third  class.    Why 
is  the  Tendon  of  Achilles  so  named?    What  is  the  advantage  of 
the  third  class  of  levers?     Why  desirable  in  the  hand?     What 
class  of  lever  is  the  lower  jaw? 

36.  What  advantages  are  gained  by  the  enlargement  of  the 
bones  at  the  joints?     Illustrate.     How  do  we  stand  erect?    Is  it 
an  involuntary  act? 

37.  Why   can   not   a   child   walk   at   once,    as   many  young 
animals   do?     Why   can   we   not  hold  up  the  head  easily  when 
we  walk  on   "all  fours"?     Why  can  not  an  animal  stand  erect 
as  man  does? 

38.  Describe  the  process  of  walking.      Show  that  walking  is 
a   process   of   falling.     Describe   the   process  of  running.     What 
causes  the  swinging   of   the    hand   in    walking?     Why  are  we 
shorter  when  walking?*    Why  does   a  person  when   lost   often 
go  in  a  circle?     In   which   direction   does   one   always   turn   in 
that  case?f 

39.  What   is   the   muscular   sense?    Value   of  educating   it? 
How  do  we  gratify  it  ? 

40.  What  effect  has  exercise  upon  a  muscle?      Is  there  any 
danger  in  violent  exercise?     For  what  purpose  should  we  exer- 

*  Stand  a  boy  erect  against  a  wall.  Mark  his  height  with  a  stick. 
Now  have  him  step  off  a  part  of  a  pace,  and  then  several  whole  paces. 
Next,  let  him  close  his  eyes,  and  walk  to  the  wall  again.  He  will  be  per- 
ceptibly lower  than  the  stick,  until  he  straightens  up  once  more  from  a 
walking  position. 

t  Take  several  boys  into  a  smooth  grass  lot.  Set  up  a  stick  at  a  dis- 
tance for  them  to  walk  toward.  Test  the  boys,  to  find  which  are  left- 
handed,  or  right-handed ;  which  left-legged  or  right-legged.  Then  blindfold 
the  boys  and  let  them  walk,  as  they  think,  toward  the  mark.  See  who 
varies  toward  the  right,  and  who  turns  to  the  left. 


362  QUESTIONS     FOE     CLASS     USE. 

else?  Should  exercise  be  in  the  open  air?  What  is  the  rule  for 
exercise?  Is  a  young  person  excusable,  who  leads  a  sedentary 
life,  and  yet  takes  no  daily  out-door  exercise?  What  will  be 
Nature's  penalty  for  such  a  violation  of  her  law?  Will  a  post- 
ponement of  the  penalty  show  that  we  have  escaped  it? 

41.  Ought  a   scholar   to    study   during   the. time   of  recess? 
Will  a  promenade  in  the  vitiated  air  of  the  school-room  furnish 
suitable   exercise?    What   is   the  best   time  for  taking  exercise? 
What  class  of  persons  can  safely  exercise  before  breakfast? 

42.  What  are  the  advantages  of  the  different  kinds  of  exer- 
cise ?    Should  we  not  walk  more  ?    What  is  the  general  influence 
upon  the  body  of  vigorous  exercise? 

43.  State  some  of  the  wonders  of  the  muscles.    What  is  the 
St.  Vitus*  dance?    Cure? 

44.  What  are  convulsions  ?  What  is  the  locked-jaw  ?  Causes  ? 
The  gout  ?     Cause  ?     Cure  ?    The  rheumatism  ?     Its  two  forms  ? 
Peculiarity  of  the  acute? 

45.  Danger   in   acute   rheumatism  ?     In   what   does   chronic 
rheumatism  often  result?     What  is  lumbago?     Give  instances. 
What  is  a  ganglion?    Its  cure?    A  bursa? 


275.  What  is  meant  by  the   origin   of   a   muscle?     The   at 
tachment  ?    Is  a  muscle  always  extended  between  two  contiguous 
bones?     Give  an  illustration.      Can  the  points  of  origin  and  of 
attachment  change  offices?     Illustrate.     What  is  an  important 
consequence  of  the  attachment  of  the  muscles  to  the  bones?   If, 
in  the  limb  of  a  dead  body,  one  end  of  a  muscle  is  separated 
from  its  point  of  attachment,  what   occurs?    Would   the   result 
be  the  same  during  life?    To  what  is  this  phenomenon  due? 

276.  Why  are  the  muscles  continually  striving  to  shorten? 
Describe  the  effect  when  several  opposing  muscles  are  attached 
to  one  bone.      When  is  the  balanced  position  of  the  limbs  best 
observed?    Are   the   muscles   always   attached    to   bones?     Give 
example     How  does  the  flesh   of  man  differ  from  that  of  an 
ox?      How    may    the    structure    of   muscular   fibers    be   rudely 
illustrated?    Describe  smooth  muscle-fibers.     How  do  they  differ 
from  striated  muscle-fibers? 


THE     MUSCLES.  363 

277.  In  what  form  do  smooth  muscle-fibers  frequently  occur  ? 
In  such   cases,  how   are   they  usually  arranged?    What   is   the 
effect  of  their  contraction?     Of  what  especial  use  is  this  power 
in  case  of  the  smaller  arteries?    In  case  of  the  intestine? 

278.  In  the  latter  instance,  how  does  the  contraction  take 
place?    Are  the  striated  muscle-fibers  voluntary  or  involuntary? 
Name  an  exception  to  this  rule.     Give  other  peculiarities  of  the 
muscle-fibers    of   the    heart.      What    causes   the    contraction   of 
smooth  muscle-fibers?     Of  striated  muscle-fibers?    Why  do  little 
children  seldom   injure   themselves   by   over-exertion?     How  is 
the  danger  increased  in  youth? 

279.  What  class  of  people  are  in  most  peril  from  violent  or 
excessive  exercise?    Why?     At  what  age  should  one  cease  from 
haste  of  all  kinds?      Give  instances  of  valuable  lives  lost  from 
personal  imprudence. 

280.  What  are  the  effects   of  insufficient  exercise   upon  the 
young?     How  does  it  predispose  to  disease?     What  makes  the 
children  of  the  laboring  classes  so  hardy?     Is  a  regulation  step 
desirable  in  walking?     Why  not?     Why  is  it  more  fatiguing  to 
walk  up-hill  than  on  level  ground? 

281.  How  does   the   management   of  the   breath  affect  this 
fatigue?     How  should  a  belt  be  worn,  if  used    during  exercise? 
Can  other  forms  of  exercise  be  successfully  substituted  for  walk- 
ing?   Why  not?    What   is   the  difference  in  movement  between 
walking  and  skating?   Which  is  the  better  exercise?    What  are 
the  dangers  from  skating?     What  precaution  should  be  used  by 
those  who  have  weak  ankles? 

282.  Name  the  different  action   of  the   muscles  in  the  for- 
ward and  backward   movements  in  rowing.      What  is  the  com- 
parative value  of  rowing  as  an  exercise?    Why  is  it  especially 
desirable  for  women?     How  should  women  dress  when  rowing, 
horseback-riding,    tennis-playing,    etc.  ?      What  rules   should  be 
observed   by   rowers?     Why   should   the  breath  be    allowed   to 
escape  while  the  oar  is  in  the  water? 

283.  What   sanitary   measures   should  be   observed    after   a 
row  ?    What  effect  has  too  frequent  and  too  prolonged  immer- 
sion on  young   swimmers?    Does  swimming  require  much  mus- 
cular exertion  ?   Why  ?   Why  does  an  occasional  swimmer  become 
exhausted  sooner  than  an  experienced  one?     On  what  do  ease 


364  QUESTIONS     FOR     CLASS     USE. 

and  speed  in  swimming  depend?    Is  the  habit  of  diving  desir- 
able?   Should  diving  ever  be  practiced  in  shallow  water? 

284.  Why   is    lawn-tennis    the    most    desirable    of   out-door 
games  ?  Ans.   Not  only  because  nearly  every  muscle  of  the  body 
is  brought  into  exercise,  but  because   it  is  one  of  the  few  field 
sports  in  which  women  can  gracefully  join.     In  this  it  shares 
the  honor  with  croquet.     What  are  the   dangers  attendant  on 
lawn-tennis?    From  what  do  many  of  them  arise?    Why  should 
tennis  shoes  have  heels?     To  what  class  of  people  is  horseback- 
riding  particularly  suited?    What  class   of  invalids   should   not 
indulge  in  bicycling  and  tricycling?     To  what  class  is  it  pecul- 
iarly beneficial? 

285.  What  are  the  dangers  attendant  on  base-ball  games? 
Foot-ball  ?    When  may  light  and  heavy  gymnastics  be  profitably 
employed?    Name  a  sufficient  apparatus.      What  are  the  objec- 
tions to  gymnasium  exercise?     Its  advantages? 


THE    SKIN. 

49.  What  are  the  uses  of  the  skin?    Describe  its  adaptation 
to  its  place.    What  is  its  function  as  an  organ?     Describe  the 
structure  of  the  skin.      The  sensitiveness  of  the  cutis.      The  in- 
sensitiveness  of  the  cuticle. 

50.  How  is  the  skin  constantly  changing?     The  shape  and 
number  of  the  cells?    Value  of  the  cuticle?     How  is  the. cuticle 
formed?    Ans.   By  secretion  from  the  cutis. 

51.  What  is  the  complexion?     Its    cause?     Why  is  a   scar 
white?    What  is  the  cause   of  "tanning"?    What  are  freckles? 
Albinos?    Describe  the  action  of  the  sun  on  the  skin. 

52.  Why  are  the  hairs  and  the  nails  spoken  of  under  the 
title  of  the  skin?     Uses  of  the  hair?     Its  structure?     How  can 
it  be  examined?     What    is  the  hair-bulb?     What  is  it  called? 
How  does  a  hair  grow?     At  what  rate?     Whgh  can  it  be  re- 
stored, if  destroyed?     Does  hair  grow  after  death? 

53.  When  hair  has  become   gray,  can  its  original   color   be 
naturally  restored  ?    What  is  the  danger  of  hair-dyes  ?    Are  they 
of  any  real  value?     How  can  the  hair  stand  on   end?     How  do 
horses  move  their  skin?     Is  there  any  feeling  in  a  hair? 


THE     SKIN.  365 

54.  Illustrate  the  indestructibility  of  the  hair.     What  are  the 
uses  of  the  nails?     How  do  the  nails  grow?     What  is  the  mu- 
cous membrane? 

55.  Its  composition?    The  connective  tissue ?    Why  so  called? 
What  uses  does  it  subserve? 

56.  What  is  its  character?     How  does  the  fat  exist  in  the 
body?     Its  uses?     State  the  various  uses  of  membrane  in  the 
body.     Where  is  there  no  fat?     Where  is  there  always  fat? 

57.  Why  are   the   teeth   spoken   of  in   connection  with   the 
mucous  membrane  ?    Name  and  describe  the  four  kinds  of  teeth. 
What  are  the  milk-teeth?    Describe  them.      What  teeth  appear 
first? 

58.  Give  the  order  and  age  at  which  they  appear.     When 
do  the  permanent  teeth  appear?    Describe  their  growth.     Which 
one  comes  first?    Last? 

59.  Describe  the  structure  of  the  teeth.      How  are  the  teeth 
fitted  in  the  jaw  ? 

60.  Why  do  the  .teeth  decay?     What  care  should  be  taken 
of  the  teeth?    What  caution  should  be  observed?    What  are  the 
oil  glands? 

61.  Use  of  this  secretion?    What  are  the  perspiratory  glands ? 
State  their  number.     Their  total  length.    What  are  the  "pores" 
of  the  skin? 

62.  63.   What  is  the  perspiration?     What  is  the  constitution 
of  the  perspiration?     Illustrate  its  value.     Name  the  three  uses 
of  the  skin.     Illustrate  the  absorbing  power  of  the  skin.     What 
precaution  should  be  observed  in  handling  a  dead  body?     Why 
are  cosmetics  and  hair-dyes  injurious?     What  relation  exists  be- 
tween the  skin  and  the  lungs?     What  lesson  does  this  teach? 
When   is  the   best   time   for   a   bath?     Why? 

64,  65.  What  is  the  value  of  friction?  Why  should  not  a 
bath  be  taken  just  before  or  after  a  meal  ?  Is  an  excess  of  soap 
beneficial?  What  is  the  "reaction"?  Explain  its  invigorating 
influence.  How  is  it  secured?  General  effect  of  a  cold  bath? 
Of  a  warm  bath?  If  we  feel  chilly  and  depressed  after  a  bath, 
what  is  the  teaching?  Describe  the  Russian  vapor  bath.  Why 
is  the  sea-bath  so  stimulating? 

66.   How  long  should  one  remain  in  any  bath?     How  does' 
clothing  keep  us  warm-'/     Explain  the  use  of  linen  as  an  article 


866  QUESTIONS     FOR     CLASS     USE. 

of  clothing.     Cotton.     Wool.     Flannel.     How  can  we  best  protect 
ourselves  against  the  changes  of  our  climate? 

67.  "What  colored  clothing  is  best  adapted  for  all  seasons? 
Value  of  the  nap?    Furs?    Thick  vs.  thin  clothing?    Should  we 
wear  thick  clothing  during  the  day,  and  in  the  evening  put  on 
thin  clothing  ?    Can  children  endure  exposure  better  than  grown 
persons?    What  is  the  erysipelas?    How  relieved? 

68,  69.     Eczema  ?      What    do    its    various    forms    denote  ? 
Corns?    Cause?    Cure?   In-growing  nails?    Cure?   Warts?    Cure? 
Chilblain  ?    Cause  ?    Preventive  ? 


286.  Name    some    causes    of   baldness.      Give    Dr.    Nichols' 
opinion.    Why  is  frequent  shampooing  inadvisable?    One  prob- 
able  reason   why  women   are   less   frequently  bald   than   men? 
What   is   the   best   general    treatment  for  the  hair  and   scalp? 
Upon  what  does  the  color  of  the  hair  mainly  depend? 

287.  In  cases  of  sudden  blanching  of  the  hair  what  is  the 
effect  upon  the  pigment?     Give  an  illustration.     How  do  the 
extra  air-bubbles  find  their  way  into  the  hair?    Does  air  natu- 
rally exist  in  the  hair?    What  relation  do  the  nails  bear  to  the 
scarf  skin  ? 

288.  What  causes  the  horny  appearance  of  the  nails?    De- 
scribe the  root  of  the  nail  in  its  relation  to  the  sensitive  and  the 
scarf  skin.     Upon  what  does  the  nail  rest?    What  is -its  appear- 
ance?   What  is  the  lunula?    Why  is  it  lighter  than  the  rest  of 
the  nail?    How  does  the  nail  increase  in  length?    In  thickness? 
Where  is  the  greatest  thickness?    How  does  the  growth  of  the 
nail  during  disease,  compare  with  its  growth  in  health? 

289.  How  long  does  it  'take  the  thumb-nail  to  grow  from  its 
root  to  its  free  extremity?    The  great  toe?    Give  general  rules 
for  the  care  of  the  nails.    How  does  physical  cleanliness  pro- 
mote moral  purity?    What  does  its  neglect  indicate? 

290.  What  especial  care  should  be  taken  in  regard  to  the 
feet?    Why?    Are  baths  a  modern  refinement?    What  can  you 
say  about  the  ancient  Greek  and  Roman  baths  ?   What  constitutes 
the  value  of  the  Turkish  bath? 

291.  What  class  of  people  should  never  use  this  bath?    To 


RESPIRATION     AND     THE     VOICE.  367 

what  class  of  invalids  is  it  particularly  beneficial?  Is  sea-bath- 
ing advisable  for  persons  of  all  ages?  How  should  an  inex- 
perienced sea-bather  begin  ?  When  should  the  sea-bath  be  taken  ? 

292.  How    long    should    a    delicate    person   remain    in   the 
water?    State   the  danger  of  bathing  when  overheated.     Under 
what  conditions  of  body  and  of  temperature  should  sea  or  river 
bathing  be   avoided?    Why?    Give    illustration    of   the    English 
soldier.     How  should  the  temperature  of  the  water,  in  bathing, 
compare  with  that  of  the  air?    Of  the  body? 

293.  Describe    the    bathers'   cramp.     What    are    its    causes? 
What  precaution   should  be  used  by  bathers   in  regard  to  the 
mouth  and  ears?    Why? 

294.  How  can   a  person   who  does  not  know  how  to  swim, 
save  himself  from  drowning  ? 

295.  What  are  the   advantages  of  woolen  clothing?    Why  is 
it    particularly   desirable    in    malarial    countries?    What   double 
purpose  does  woolen  clothing  serve  in  semi-tropical  climates? 

296.  Does   the   warmth   of  clothing   depend   on  its  weight? 
What  errors  are  often  made  and  with  what  effect?    State  what 
is  said  in  regard  to  poisonous  dyes  in  wearing  apparel.     Give 
illustration. 

297.  What  effect  has  uncleanly  attire  on  the  health?    Does 
this  apply  to  outer  as  well  as  under  garments? 


RESPIRATION     AND    THE    VOICE. 

73.  Name  the  organs  of  respiration  and  the  voice.     Describe 
the  larynx.     The  epiglottis.     The  oesophagus.     What  is  meant 
by  food  "going  the  wrong  way"? 

74.  l)escribe    the    vocal    cords.     Their    use.     How    is    sound 
produced  ? 

75.  How  are  the  higher  tones  of  the  voice  produced?    The, 
lower?    Upon  what  does   loudness   depend?     A   falsetto   voice? 
What  is  the  cause   of  the  voice  "changing"?    What  is  speech? 
Is  the  tongue  necessary  to  speech?     Illustrate.     (See  also  page 
298.) 

76.  What  is  vocalization?    How  are  talking-machines  made ? 


368  QUESTIONS     FOR     CLASS     USE. 

77.  How  is  a  formed  by  the  voice  ?    What  is  Ji  ?    Difference 
between  a  sigh  and  a  groan?    What  vowel  sounds  are  made  in 
laughing?    Does  whistling  depend  on  the  voice?    Tell  how  the 
various  consonants  are  formed.    What  are  the  labials  ?   The  den- 
tals?   The  linguals?    What  vowels  does  a  child  pronounce  first? 

78.  Describe    the    wind-pipe.     The    bronchi.     The    bronchial 
tubes.    Why  is  the  trachea  so  called?    Describe  the  structure  of 
the  lungs.    What  are  the  lungs  of  slaughtered  animals  called? 
Why  will  a  piece  of  the  lungs  float  on  water? 

79.  Name  the  wrappings  of  the  lungs.    Describe  the  pleura. 
How  is  friction  prevented?     What  are  the  cilia?     Their  use? 

80.  What   two    acts    constitute   respiration?     In   what   two 
ways  may  the  position  of  the  ribs  change  the  capacity  of  the 
chest?    Describe   the   process  of  inspiration.     Describe   the  dia- 
phragm. 

81.  What  is  the  process  of  expiration?    How  often  do  we 
breathe?    What   is   sighing?      Coughing?      Sneezing?     Snoring? 
Laughing  ?    Crying  ? 

82.  Describe    hiccough.      Yawning.      Its    value?     What   is 
meant  by  the   breathing  capacity?     How   does   it   vary?    How 
much,  in  addition,  can  the  lungs  expel  forcibly?    How  much  of 
the    breathing    capacity   is    available    only   through    practice? 
Value  of  this  extra  supply?    Can  we  expel  all  the  air  from  our 
lungs?    Value  of  this  constant  supply? 

83.  How  constant  is   the   need   of   air?     What  is  the  vital 
element  of  the  air?    Describe  the  action  of  the   oxygen  in  our 
lungs.     What  does  the  blood  give  up?     Gain?     What  are  the 
constituents  of  the  air?    What  are  the  peculiar  properties  and 
uses  of  each? 

84.  How  can   we   test  the   air  we  exhale?    What   does  its 
analysis    reveal?     Which    is    the    most    dangerous    constituent? 
What  occurs  when  we  rebreathe  exhaled  air  ? 

85.  Describe  its  evil  effects.    What  is  denoted  by  the  "Black 
Hole  of  Calcutta"?     Give  other  illustrations  of  the  dangers  of 
bad  air.    Describe  the  need  of  ventilation.     Will  a  single  breath 
pollute  the  air? 

86-95.  How  can  we  detect  the  floating  impurities  in  the  air? 
What  is  the  influence  of  a  fire  or  a  light?  Of  a  hot  stove? 
When  is  the  ventilation  perfect?  What  diseases  are  largely 


RESPIRATION     AND     THE     VOICE.  369 

owing  to  bad  air?  Should  the  windows  and  doors  be  tightly 
closed,  if  we  have  no  other  means  of  ventilation?  Is  not  a 
draught  of  air  dangerous?  How  can  we  prevent  this,  and  yet 
secure  fresh  air?  What  is  the  general  principle  of  ventilation? 
Must  pure  air  necessarily  be  cold  air?  Are  school-rooms  always 
properly  ventilated?  What  is  the  effect?  Are  churches?  Are 
our  bedrooms?  Should  children  or  delicate  people  sleep  in  cold 
rooms?  Can  we,  at  night,  breathe  anything  but  night  air?  Is 
the  night  air  out-of-doors  ever  injurious?  Ans.  In  times  and 
places  of  malaria,  and  also  in  very  damp  weafcher^it  \should 
be  avoided,  even  at  the  risk  of  bad  air  in-doors.V  Describe  some 
of  the  wonders  of  respiration. 

96.  How  is  constriction  of  the  lungs  produced?    When  may 
clothing  be  considered  tight?    What  are  the  dangers  of  tight- 
lacing?    Which  would  make  the  stronger,   more  vigorous,  and 
longer-lived  person,  the  form  shown  in  A  or  B,  Fig.  33?    Is  it 
safe  to  run  any  risk  in  this  dangerous  direction? 

97.  What  is  Bronchitis?    Pleurisy?    Pneumonia?    Consump- 
tion?   What  is  one  great  cause  of  Consumption?    How  may  a 
constitutional  tendency  to  this  disease  be  warded  off  in  youth? 
Ans.    Besides    plenty   of    fresh    air    and    exercise,    care  should 
be  taken  in  the    diet.     Rich  pastry,   unripe  fruit,  salted  meat, 
and    acid    drinks    should    be    avoided,    and    a   certain    quantity 
of   fat   should   be    eaten    at   each    meal.  —  BENNETT.     What    is 
asphyxia?    Describe   the    process   for  restoring  such   a  person. 
(See  p.  264.) 

98.  What  is  diphtheria?      Its  peculiarities?     Danger?     The 
croup?    Its  characteristics?    Remedy?    (See  p.  260.)    Causes  of 
stammering?    How  cured? 


297.  How  does  the  singing  voice  differ  from  the  speaking 
voice?    How  can  you  prove  the  effect  of  duration  of  sound  in 
speaking  and  singing?     How   do  the  intonations   of  the   voice 
affect  the  meaning  of  words? 

298.  Give  illustrations  of  speech  in  persons  without  a  tongue. 
What  is  the  effect  of  alcohol  and  tobacco  on  the  throat?    Do 
they  have  an  influence-  on  the  voice  ?    Does  the  excessive  use  of 


370  QUESTIONS     FOR     CLASS     USE. 

tea  and  coffee  ever  affect  the  voice?    How?    To    what   is    the 
hoarse  tone  of  an  inebriate  due? 

299,  300.  What  was  Adelina  Patti's  advice  with  regard  to 
stimulants  and  late  hours?  Does  the  respiration  of  woman 
differ  from  that  of  man  ?  Give  experiments  with  Indian  women. 
What  lessons  do  we  draw  from  these  facts?  What  rule  should 
be  observed  in  regard  to  the  size  of  a  bodice  ?  What  are  bacteria 
or  microbes?  How  is  their  existence  revealed?  What  does  the 
Germ  Theory  of  Disease  teach  in  regard  to  microbes? 

301.  What  can  you  say  about  the  microbe  of  putrefaction? 
How  can  you  obtain  it  for  examination?   What  office  in  Nature 
do  bacteria   seem  to  serve?    Give  the  theory  in  regard  to  prop- 
agation of  special  disease  germs.     Do  they  always  cause  disease 
when  taken  into  the  body?* 

302.  State  some   conditions  which  favor  the  growth  of  dis- 
ease-germs.   Which  prevent  or  retard  their  growth.     Relate  the 
effect  of  vaccination,  according  to  the  germ  theory. 

303.  304.   If  a  drop  of  an  infusion  charged  with  bacteria  be 
put  in  the  extract  of  beef  or  mutton,  what  is  the  result?    What 
would  be  the  effect  upon  an  open  wound?     Give  Dr.  Tyndall's 
personal  experience.     Name  some  efficient  antidote  against  the 
bacteria  of  putrefaction.      Ans.   Carbolic  acid  solution  is'  exten- 
sively used  for  this  purpose.      How  are  disease  germs  often  dis- 
seminated?     State    the   necessity   of   disinfection   in  regard    to 
soiled  clothing. 

305.  Illustrate  how  disease  has  been  communicated  by  cloth- 
ing. What  is  the  first  necessary  condition  to  a  sanitary  home? 
What  is  the  meaning  of  the  word  malaria?  What  are  three 
active  agents  in  the  production  of  malaria?  A  fourth?  De- 

*  Of  the  immense  number  and  variety  of  micro-organisms  found  in 
Nature,  only  very  few  are  disease-producing.  Dr.  Austin  Flint  says  in 
The  Forum,  for  December,  1888 :  "  It  is  probable  that  future  investigations 
into  the  physiology  of  digestion,  will  show  that  bacteria  play  an  important 
part  in  this  function.  Pasteur  has  recently  isolated  no  less  than  seventeen 
different  micro-organisms  in  the  mouth,  which  were  not  destroyed  by  the 
gastric  juice.  Some  of  these  dissolved  albumen,  gluten,  and  caseine,  and 
some  transformed  starch  into  sugar.  Bacteria  normally  exist  in  great 
number  and  variety  in  the  intestines,  although  the  part  which  they  take 
in  intestinal  digestion  has  not  been  accurately  determined."— The  number  of 
spores  introduced  into  the  human  system  by  respiration,  when  the  health 
is  perfectly  sound,  has  been  estimated  at  three  hundred  thousand  a  day. 


RESPIRATION     AND     THE     VOICE.  371 

scribe    a    typical   malarious  locality.      How    does    newly-broken 
ground  induce  malaria? 

306.  State   the   different   ways  in   which  running  water  can 
be  contaminated.      What  care  should  be  taken  in  regard  to  the 
level  of  building  site? 

307.  Give  some  of  the   results  of  a  wet  foundation.    What 
rules  should  be  observed  in  regard  to  shade  ?    What  is  the  effect 
of  too  dense  foliage    about  a   dwelling?     In   building   a  house, 
what   precautions   should   be   taken    against    dampness?     What 
about  the  cellar?     Sewerage?     Plumbing?     Ventilation?     Fire- 
places?   Piazzas  and  balconies?    Sleeping-rooms? 

308.  What  general  purpose  does  a  house  serve?     What  care 
should  be  taken  in  regard  to  the  dust  or  ash  heap  ?    What  is  the 
effect  if  liquids  or  table  refuse  be  thrown  upon  it  ?    Where  should 
it  be  situated?    How  often  should  refuse  be  carted  away ?    If  its 
frequent   removal  be   inexpedient,    what   precaution    should   be 
used?    What  are  the  best  of  all  deodorizers?      How  should  the 
back  premises  be  cared  for?     What  is  the  best  way  to  dispose 
of  household  garbage? 

309.  How  can  this  be  done?     With  what  additional  advan- 
tage?    Give   Dr.   Derby's    remarks    in    regard   to    sewers,  their 
condition,    and   the    results.      How  should   traps   and  drains  be 
cared  for?     How  should  bad  smells  be  treated?     Is  a  foul  smell 
always    the    most    dangerous?     How  do  poisonous   gases  often 
find   entrance   to   a   house?     What  rule  should  be   observed  in 
regard  to  ventilating  and  soil  pipes? 

310.  What  precautions  should  be  observed  in  digging  about 
a  dwelling?     How  do  waste-pipes    often  become   closed?     How 
may  they  be  cleared?     What   dangers   arise  from   unventilated 
waste-pipes?      How  are  wash-basin  pipes   contaminated?     Tell 
what  came  from  a  neighbor's  cess-pool.     Can  you  name  similar 
instances  which  have  come  under  your  own  observation  ? 

311.  312.   Describe  the  condition  and   effects  of  a  neglected 
cellar.     Tell  what  came  from  a  crack  in  a  cellar  wall. 

313.  What  effect  have  brick  and  mortar  in  keeping  out 
gases?  How  do  bed-coverings  take  the  place  of  day  garments? 
What  kind  of  bed-covering  is  desirable?  Is  a  comfortable  bed 
necessary  to  perfect  health?  How  often  and  for  how  long  time 
should  a  bed  be  ventilated? 


372  QUESTIONS     FOR     CLASS     USE. 


THE    CIRCULATION. 

105.  Name   the   organs  of   the   circulation.      Does  the  blood 
permeate  all  parts  of  the  body?     What   is  the  average  amount 
in  each  person?    Its   composition?    The  plasma?    The   red  cor- 
puscles?   The  white? 

106.  What  is  the  size  of  a  red  cell?    Are  the  shape  and  size 
uniform  ?    Value  of  this  ?    Illustrate.     Are  the  disks  permanent  ? 
What  substances  are  contained  in  the  plasma  ?     What  is  fibrin  ? 

107.  In  what  sense  is  the  blood   "liquid   flesh"?     What  is 
the  use  of  the  red  disks?     What  is  the  office  of  the  oxygen  in 
the  body?    Where  is  the  blood  purified? 

108.  What  is  transfusion?    Is  it  of  value? 

109.  Give  some  illustrations.     What  is  the  cause  of  coagu- 
lation of  the  blood?     Value   of   this  property?     Has   the   fibrin 
any  other  use? 

110.  What  organ  propels  the  blood?    What   is   the   location 
of  the  heart?     How  large  is  it?     Put  your  hand  over  it.     What 
is  the  pericardium?    Describe  the  systole. 

111.  The    diastole.      How    many    chambers    in    the    heart? 
What  is  their  average  size?     What   is   meant  by  the  right  and 
left  heart?    What  are  the  auricles?    Why  so  called?    The  ven- 
tricles ? 

112.  What    is   the    use    of    the    auricles?      The    ventricles? 
Which  are  made  the  stronger?     Show  the  need  of  valves  in  the 
ventricles.    Why  are  there  no  valves  in  the  auricles?     Draw  on 
the  board  the  form  of  the  valves.     Name  them. 

113.  Describe  the  tricuspid  valve.    The  bicuspid.     Hew  are 
these  valves  strengthened? 

114.  What  peculiarity  in    the    attachment   of   these    cords? 
Describe  the  semi-lunar  valves.    What  are  the  arteries  ?    Why  so 
named?    What  is  their  use?     Their  structure?     How  does  their 
elasticity  act  ?    What  is  meant  by  a   "  collateral  circulation  "  ? 

115.  How  are  the  arteries  protected?     Where  are  they  lo- 
cated?   Give  a  general  description  of  the  arterial  system.    What 
is  the  aorta?    What  is  the   pulse?    On  which   arteries   can   we 
best  feel  it?    What  is  the  average  number  of  beats  per  minute? 
How  and  why  does  this  vary? 


THE     CIRCULATION.  373 

116.  Why  does  a  physician  feel  a  patient's  pulse?    What  are 
the  veins?     What  blood  do  they  carry?     Describe   the   venous 
system.     What  vein  does  not  lead  toward  the  heart?     Describe 
the  valves  of  the  veins.    What  valves  of  the  heart  do  they  re- 
semble?   What  are  varicose  veins? 

117.  Where   and    how   can   we   see   the   operation   of  these 
valves?    What  are  the  capillaries?    What  is  the  function  of  the 
capillaries?*    What  changes  take  place  in  this  system? 

118.  Describe    the    circulation   of   the  blood   as   seen  in  the 
web  of  a  frog's  foot. 

119.  Who  discovered  the  circulation  of  the  blood?    How  was 
the  discovery  received  ?    What  remark  did  Harvey  make  ?    What 
does  that   show  ?    Name    the   two   divisions   of  the   circulation. 
Describe  the  route  of  the  blood  by  the  diagram.      1.   The  lesser 
circulation.     2.   The  greater  circulation. 

120.  What  is  the  velocity  of  the  blood?     How  long  does  it 
require  for  all  the  blood  to  pass  through  the  heart?      How  long 
does  it  take  the  blood  to  make  the   tour  of  the  body?     What 
is  the  average  temperature  of  the  body?     How  much  does  this 
vary  in  health?     Ans.    Not  more  than  2°,  even  in  the  greatest 
extremes  of  temperature. — FLINT. 

121.  How   and   where   is   the   heat   of   the  body  generated? 
How  is  it    distributed?      In  what  diseases    is    the  variation    of 
temperature    marked?      How   is   the   temperature   of   the   body 
regulated  ? 

122.  In  what  way  does  life  exist  through  death?    Is  not  this 
as  true  in  the  moral  as  in  the   physical   world?      What  does  it 
teach  ?    How  rapidly  do  our  bodies  change  ?    What  are  the  three 
vital  organs? 

123.  Name  some  of  the  wonders  of  the  heart. 

124-126.  What  is  the  lymphatic  circulation?  What  is  the 
thoracic  duct?  The  lymph?  The  glands?  What  is  the  office  of 
the  lymphatics  ?  What  are  the  lacteals  ?  Give  some  illustrations 
of  the  action  of  the  lymphatics  of  the  different  organs.  Should 

*  The  distinctive  function  of  the  capillaries  is  to  offer  peripheral  resist- 
ance to  the  circulation  of  the  blood.  This  insures  "blood  pressure,"  a  con- 
dition indispensable  to  the  "  heart-beat,"  and  also  causes  leakage  (transuda- 
tion).  This  leakage  brings  the  nutriment  in  contact  with  the  tissue  cells, 
•whereby  they  are  renewed.-  In  the  same  way  the  air  passes  from  the  blood 
to  the  cells. 


374  QUESTIONS     FOR     CLASS     USE. 

we  use  care  in  selecting  wall-paper?  What  is  meant  by  the 
sub-cutaneous  insertion  of  morphine?  How  do  hibernating 
animals  live  during  the  winter?  Whai;  is  a  congestion?  Its 
cause  ? 

127.  What  is  blushing?    Why  does  terror  cause  one  to  grow 
cold  and  pale  ?    How  is  an  inflammation  caused  ?    Name  its  four 
characteristics. 

128.  How  may  severe  bleeding  be  stopped?      How  can  you 
tell  whether  the   blood   comes  from  an  artery  or  a  vein  ?    Why 
rfliould  you  know  this?    What  is  the  scrofula?    What  are  "ker- 
nels "  * 

129.  130.   How  may  a  scrofulous  tendency  of  the  system  be 
counteracted  ?    What  kinds  of  food  stimulate  this  disease  ?    What 
is  the  cause  of  a  "cold"?     Why  does  exposure  sometimes  cause 
a  cold  in  the  head,  sometimes  on  the  lungs,  and  at  others  bring 
on  a  rheumatic  attack?     Why  is  a  cold  dangerous?     Ans.   It 
weakens  the  system  and  paves  the  way  for  other  diseases.   What 
is  the  theory  of  treating  a  cold  ?    Describe  the  method.    What  is 
catarrh  ?    Cause  ? 

131,  132.  How  is  alcohol  produced?  Is  alcohol  present  in 
domestic  wines  and  home-brewed  ales?  Are  they,  then,  harm- 
less drinks?  What  is  a  ferment?  (See  also  pp.  300,  301.)  What 
is  the  difference  between  ferments,  bacteria,  microbes,  and 
fungi  ?  A.ns.  A  few  investigators  still  look  upon  the  micro-or- 
ganisms known  as  bacteria  and  microbes  as  animal  existences, 
but  the  larger  part  now  concede  them  to  be  vegetable. 

133.  What  is  the  effect  of  fermentation?  ^hat  can  you  say 
concerning  yeast? 

134.  Explain  the  process  of  making  beer.     Wine.     What  is 
distillation  ? 

135.  136.   Is  there  more  than   one   kind  of  alcohol?    What 
can  you  say  of  methyl  alcohol?    Amyl?      Ethyl?    Which  is  the 
ordinary  alcohol  of  commerce?    What  is  the  peculiar  effect  of 
fusel  oil?    Is  it  often  found  in  wines  and  spirits?    Has  alcohol 
any  beneficial  properties? 

137,  138.  Describe  one  of  the  striking  effects  of  alcohol. 
What  is  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  plant  and  animal  life? 

139,  140.  What  is  the  difference  between  the  alcohol  present 
in  beer  and  cider,  and  that  in  gin  and  whiskey?  Name  another 


DIGESTION     AND     FOOD.  375 

dangerous  effect  of  alcoholic  drinks.     What  business  considera- 
tion should  deter  young  men  from  liquor-drinking? 

141-143.  Illustrate  the  general  effect  of  alcohol  upon  the 
circulation.  Upon^the  heart.  Is  alcohol  a  stimulant  or  a  nar- 
cotic? Describe  how  alcohol  becomes  the  "Genius  of  Degener- 
ation." Explain  what  is  meant  by  "Vascular  Enlargement." 

•y  144,  145.  Describe  the  effect  of  alcohol  upon  the  mem- 
branes. Upon  the  blood.  Does  it  render  the  blood  thin  or 
heavy?  What  is  the  difference  between  pure  and  alcoholized 
blood? 

145-147.  Describe  the  effect  of  alcohol  upon  the  lungs. 
What  form  of  consumption  does  it  induce?  Are  liquor-drinkers 
more  or  less  liable  to  epidemic  diseases? 


314.  How  does  the  pulse  felt  by  the  finger  correspond  with 
the  beat  of  the  heart?    Name  some  agencies  that  influence  the 
pulse-beat?     Which  part  of  the  body  has  the  most  varied  form 
of  pulsation? 

315.  Compare    the    pulses    of   the   wrist    and    brain   in    the 
sleeping  and  the  waking  states.     How  do  catarrhal  colds  gener- 
ally arise?     How  are  they  best  cured? 

316.  What  is  said   of  the  vitality  of  catarrh  germs?    What 
is   a   popular   fallacy  with    regard    to    the   care   of   sick-rooms? 
Give  Dr.  Austin  Flint's  remarks  in  this  connection. 


DIGESTION     AND    FOOD. 

151.  Why   do    we    need    food?    Why   will    a    person    starve 
without  food?    Are  the  current  stories  of  people  who  live  with- 
out food  to  be  relied  upon?    How  much  food  is  needed  per  day 
by  an  adult  in  active  exercise? 

152.  How  much  in  a  year?    How  does  this  amount  vary? 
Describe  the  body  as  a  mold.    As  an  eddy.    What  does  food  do 
for  us?    What  does  food  contain? 

153.  How  is  this  force  set  free?    What  force  is  this?    How 


376  QUESTIONS     FOB     CLASS     USE. 

can  it  be  turned  into  muscular  motion,  mental  vigor,  etc.?  Do 
we  then  draw  all  our  power  from  nature?  What  becomes  of 
these  forces  when  we  are  done  with  them?  Do  we  destroy  the 
force  we  use?  Ans.  No  matter  has  been  Destroyed,  so  far  as 
we  know,  since  the  creation,  and  force  is  equally  indestruc- 
tible. Compare  our  food  to  a  tense  spring. 

154.  What  three  kinds  of  food  do  we  need?    What  is  nitrog- 
enous food?     Name  the  common  forms.     What  is  the  charac- 
teristic of  nitrogenous  food?    Why  called  albuminous?    What  is 
carbonaceous    food?     Its    two    kinds?      Constituents    of   sugar? 
Where  are   starch   and   gum   ranked?    Why?    Use  of  carbona- 
ceous food?    What  becomes  of  this  heat?    Composition  of  fat? 
How  does  fat  compare  with  sugar  in  producing  heat? 

155.  Name    the    other    uses    of   carbonaceous   food.      From 
what  kind  of  food  does  the  body  derive  the  greatest  strength? 
Name  the  mineral   matters  which  should  be  contained  in  our 
food.    What    can  you   say  of  the   abundance   and   necessity  of 
water?    Ought  we  not  to   exercise  great  care  in  selecting  the 
water  we  drink?*    Does  the  character  of  our  food  influence  the 
quantity  of  water  we  need? 

156.  What  are  the  uses  of  the  different  minerals  contained 
in  food?    Illustrate  the  importance  of  salt.     Could  a  person  live 
on  one  kind  of  food  alone?    Illustrate. 

157.  Describe   the   effect   of  living  on  lean  meat.     Show  the 
necessity  of  a  mixed  diet.     Illustrate.     Show  the  need  of  diges- 
tion.   Illustrate. 

158.  What   is   assimilation?     Describe   the   general   plan   of 
digestion.     What    did    Berzelius    call    digestion?    -Why?     What 
amount    of   liquid    is    daily  secreted    by  the    alimentary  canal? 
What  is  the  alimentary  canal  ?    How  is  it  lined  ?    How  does  the 
amaeba  digest  its  food? 

159.  The    hydra?      Define    secretion.      Describe    the    saliva. 
How   is  it   secreted?    What   is  the  amount?    Its  organic  prin- 
ciple?   Its  use?    How  soon  does  it  act ?    How  long?    What  tends 
to  check  or  increase  the  flow  of  saliva? 

*  Water  which  has  passed  through  lead-pipes  is  apt  to  contain  salts  of 
that  metal,  and  is  therefore  open  to  suspicion.  Metallic-lined  ice-pitchers, 
galvanized-iron  reservoirs,  and  many  soda-water  fountains,  are  liable  to 
the  same  objection.  (See  pp.  317,  318.) 


DIGESTION     AND     FOOD.  377 

160.   Describe  the  process  of  swallowing.     The  stomach.     Its 
size.    Its  construction.    What  is  the  peristaltic  movement? 

162.  What  is  the  pylorus?    For  what  does  this  open?    What 
is  the  gastric  juice  ?    How  abundant  is  it  ?    To  what  is  its  acidity 
due?    What   organic   principle   does  it  contain?    How   is  pepsin 
prepared?    How  is  the  flow  of  gastric  juice  influenced? 

163.  What  is  its  use?    Appearance  of  the  food  as  it  passes 
through  the  pylorus?    Why  is  not  the  stomach  itself  digested? 
What  is  the  construction  of  the  intestines?    How  are  the  intes- 
tines divided?    What  is  the  duodenum?    Why  so  called?    What 
juices  are  secreted  here? 

164.  What   is   the    bile?     Describe    the    liver.    What    is    its 
weight?    Its  construction?    Ans.   It  consists  of  a  mass  of  poly- 
hedral cells  only  T^  to  ^rr  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  filling  a  mesh 
of  capillaries.     The   capillaries  carry  the  blood  to  and  fro,  and 
the  cells  secrete  the  bile.     What  is  the  cyst?    What  does   the 
liver  secrete  from  the  blood  besides  the  bile?    Is  the  bile  neces- 
sary to  life?    Illustrate.     What  is  its  use? 

165.  What  is  the   pancreatic   juice?    Its  organic   principle? 
Its  use  ?    Appearance  of  the  food  when  it  leaves  the  duodenum  ? 
Describe  the  small  intestine.    What  is  absorption  ?    In  what  two 
ways  is  the  food  absorbed? 

166.  Where  does  the  process  commence?    How  long  does  it 
last?    Describe   the  lacteals.     Of  what  general  system  do  they 
form  a  part  ?    What  do  the  veins  absorb  ?    Where  do  they  carry 
the  food?    How  is  it  modified? 

167.  What    is    glycogen?      Describe    the    complexity   of  the 
process  of  digestion.     What  length  of  time  is  required  for  diges- 
tion in  the  stomach? 

168.  May  not  food  which  requires  little  time  in  the  stomach 
need  more  in  the  other  organs,  and  vice  versa  ?    Tell  the  story 
of  Alexis   St.    Martin.     What   time   was  required  to   digest   an 
ordinary  meal?    Apples?    Eggs,  raw  and  cooked?     Roast  beef? 
Pork?    Which  is  the  king  of  the  meats?    What  is  the  nutritive 
value  of  mutton?    Lamb?    How  should  it  be  cooked?    Objection 
to  pork?    What  is  the  trichina? 

169.  Should  ham  ever  be  eaten  raw?    Value  of  fish?    Oys- 
ters?    Milk?     Cheese?     Eggs?     Bread?      Brown   bread?     Are 
warm  biscuit  and  bread  healthful?   Nutritive  value  of  corn? 


378  QUESTIONS     FOR     CLASS     USE. 

170.  Of  the  potato?    Of  ripe  fruits?     Of  coffee?    To  what  is 
its   stimulating    property    due?     Its   influence    on    the    system? 
When  should  it  be  discarded?     Should  children  use  any  stimu- 
lants ? 

171.  Effects  of  tea?     Influence  of  strong  tea?    What  is  the 
active  principle  of  tea?    Nutritive  value  of  chocolate?    What  is 
its   active   principle?     Story   of   Linnseus?     How  should  tea  be 
made?    What  is  the  effect  of  cooking  food?    What  precaution 
in  boiling  meat ?    In  roasting?    Object  of  this  high  temperature? 
What  precaution  in  making  soup?    Why  is  frying  an  unhealth- 
ful  mode  of  cooking? 

172.  State  the  five  evil  results  of  rapid  eating.      What  dis- 
ease grows  out  of  it  ?    If  one  is  compelled  to  eat  a  meal  rapidly, 
as  at  a  railroad  station,   what  should  he  take?     Why?     Why 
does  a  child  need  more  food  proportionately  than  an  old  person  ? 
State  the  relation  of  waste  to  repair  in  youth,  in  middle,  and  in 
old   age.     What  kind   and   quantity  of  food   does   a  sedentary 
occupation  require?    What  caution   should   students   who  have 
been   accustomed   to   manual    labor   observe?      Must  a   student 
starve  himself? 

173.  Is   there   not   danger   of   overeating?     Would    not    an 
occasional  abstinence  from  a  meal  be  beneficial?     Do  not  most 
people  eat  more  than  is  for  their  good  ?    How  should  the  season 
regulate  our  diet?     The  climate?     Illustrate.    What  does  a  nat- 
ural appetite  indicate?    How  are  we  to  judge  between  a  natural 
and  an  artificial  longing?     What  does  the  craving  of  childhood 
for  sugar  indicate?* 

174.  What  is  the  effect  upon  the  circulation  of  taking  food? 
Should  we  labor   or  study  just  before   or  after  a  meal?    Why 
not?      What   time    should    intervene    between    our   meals?      Is 
"lunching"   a  healthful  practice?     Eating   heartily  just  before 

*  It  does  not  follow  from  this,  however,  that  the  free  use  of  sugar  in 
its  separate  form  ik  desirable.  The  ordinary  articles  of  vegetable  food  con- 
tain sugar  (or  starch,  which  in  the  body  is  converted  into  sugar),  in  large 
proportion ;  and  there  is  good  reason  to  believe  that  in  its  naturally-com- 
bined form  it  is  both  more  easily  digested,  and  more  available  for  the  pur- 
poses of  nutrition,  than  when  crystallized.  The  ordinary  sugar  of  com- 
merce, moreover,  derived  from  the  sugar-cane,  is  not  capable  of  being 
directly  applied  to  physiological  purposes.  Cane-sugar  is  converted  within 
the  body  into  another  kind  of  sugar,  identical  with  that  derived  from  the 
grape,  before  it  can  enter  into  the  circuit  of  the  vital  changes, 


DIGESTION     AND     FOOD.  379 

retiring?  Is  it  never  wise  to  eat  at  this  time?  (See  p.  337.) 
Why  should  care  be  banished  from  the  table?  Will  a  regular 
routine  of  food  be  beneficial? 

175,  176.  Describe  some  of  the  wonders  of  digestion.  What 
are  the  principal  causes  of  dyspepsia?  How  may  we  avoid  that 
disease  ? 

177.  What  are  the  mumps?  What  care  should  be  taken?  Is 
alcohol  a  food?  Illustrate. 

178-187.  Compare  the  action  of  alcohol  with  that  of  water. 
Is  the  alcohol  taken  into  the  stomach  eliminated  unchanged  ? 
Does  alcohol  contain  any  element  needed  by  the  body  ?  What  is 
the  effect  of  alcohol  upon  the  digestion?  Will  pepsin  act  in 
the  presence  of  alcohol  ?  What  is  the  effect  of  alcohol  upon  the 
liver  ?  What  is  ' '  Fatty  Degeneration "  ?  What  is  the  effect  of 
alcohol  upon  the  kidneys  ?  Does  alcohol  impart  heat  to  the 
body?  Does  it  confer  strength?  What  does  Dr.  Kane  say? 
Describe  Richardson's  experiments.  Tell  what  peculiar  influence 
alcohol  exerts.  What  is  alcoholism?  What  is  heredity? 


317.  What  characteristics  should  good  drinking-water  pos- 
sess ?    Are  these  always  proof  of  its  purity  ?    Will  niters  remove 
all  danger  of  contamination  ?    How  may  a  river  infect  the  entire 
population   of   a  town?     State   how  well-water  may  become   a 
dangerous  drink. 

318.  Relate  how  cases  of  fever  have   been  caused   by  care- 
lessness  in   dairies.      How  should  suspected  water  be  treated? 
Describe  a  convenient  portable  filter.     Tell  how  water  is  affected 
by  foul  air. 

319.  Tell  how  ice  may  breed  disease.      What  caution  should 
be  observed  in  engaging  ice  for  our  summer  supply?    Illustrate 
the  structure  of  the  glandular  coat  of  the  stomach. 

320.  What  is  the  office  of  the  cells  ?    Describe  the  life-history 
of  a  cell.      How  does  the  stomach  weep,  and  what  is  the  char- 
acter of  its  tears? 

321.  What  is  tyrotoxicon?    Give  Dr.  Vaughan's  experiments 
with  cheese,  milk,  and  -ice-cream,      Tell  how  milk  may  be  poi- 
soned, 


380  QUESTIONS     FOR     CLASS     USE. 

322.  Compare  the  vigor  of  exclusively  fish-eating  with  flesh- 
eating  people.  What  is  the  peculiar  value  of  fish  as  a  diet?  To 
what  class  of  people  is  it  best  suited  ?  Name  examples.  Describe 
the  principles  contained  in  coffee.  What  is  the  effect  of  caffeone  ? 
Of  caffeine?  Give  some  of  the  specific  effects  of  coffee.  How 
does  tea  differ  from  coffee?  Describe  the  injurious  effects  of 
excessive  tea-drinking. 

324.  Compare  theine    and    cocaine.      Should  children  drink 
tea  and  coffee? 

325.  Give   some   causes   of   indigestion.      Why  are   nervous 
people  prone  to  dyspepsia?     Give  the  comparative  digestibility 
of  various  meats. 

326.  Describe  how  our  food  sustains  our  bodies.      Illustrate 
the  energy  contained  in  one  gramme  of  beef-fat.     Why  is  there 
danger  in  a  "high-pressure"  style  of  living?    Illustrate. 

327.  State  the  effects  of  gluttony.     Why  is  it  unkindness  to 
indulge  inordinate  appetites  in  children?     What  should  be  the 
rule   in  regard   to   their   food?    What   effects   would   follow   its 
observance  ? 


THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM. 

191.  What  are  the  organs  of  the  nervous  system?  What  is 
the  general  use  of  this  system  ?  How  does  it  distinguish  animals 
from  plants?  What  are  the  vegetative  functions?  What  is  the 
gray  matter?  Its  use?  The  white  matter?  Its  use? 

193.  Describe  the  brain.     What  is  its  office?    Its  size?    How 
does  it  vary?    Illustrate.    Name  its  two  divisions. 

194,  195.   Describe    the    cerebrum.     The    convolutions.     The 
membranes  which  bind  the  brain  together.    What  can  you  say 
of  the   quantity  of  blood  which  goes  to  the  brain?    What  does 
it    show?     What    do    the    convolutions    indicate?     What    is    the 
use  of  the  two  halves  of  the  brain?   What  theories   have  been 
advanced    concerning   it?    Is   every   injury  to  the   brain  fatal? 
Illustrate.     Compare  the  human  brain  with  the  brains  of  some 
animals. 

196.  What  is  the  effect  of  removing  the  cerebrum?  Describe 
the  cerebellum,  What  is  the  arbor  vitse?  What  does  this  part 


THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM.  381 

of  the  brain  control?    What  are  the  peculiar  functions  of  the 
cerebellum?    G-ive  Dr.  Bastian's  remarks. 

197.  What   is   the   effect   of   an    injury   to   the    cerebellum? 
Describe    the    spinal    cord.      What   is    the    medulla    oblongata? 
Describe  the  nerves.    Is  each  part  of  the  body  supplied  with  its 
own  nerve?    Prove  it. 

198.  What    are    the    motory  nerves?     The    sensory?    When 
will  motion  be  lost  and  feeling  remain,  and  vice  versa  ?    What 
is  meant  by  a  transfer  of  pain?    Illustrate. 

199.  Name  the  three  classes  of  nerves.    What  are  the  spinal 
nerves?    Describe  the  origin  of  the  spinal  nerve!^ 

199-201.  What  are  the  cranial  nerves?  How  many  pairs 
are  there?  Describe  them. 

201,  202.  Describe  the  sympathetic  system.  What  is  its 
use?  How  does  the  brain  control  all  the  vital  processes?  What 
is  meant  by  the  crossing  of  the  cords?  What  is  the  effect? 
What  exception  in  the  seventh  pair  of  cranial  nerves? 

203,  204.  What  is  reflex  action?  Give  illustrations.  Give 
instances  of  the  unconscious  action  of  the  brain.*  Can  there  be 
feeling  or  motion  in  the  lower  limbs  when  the  spinal  cord  is 
destroyed?  What  does  the  story  told  by  Dr.  John  Hunter 
show?  Give  illustrations  of  the  independent  action  of  the  spinal 
cord  in  animals.  What  are  the  uses  of  reflex  action? 


*  The  cerebellum  has  its  unconscious  action  in  the  processes  of  respira- 
tion and  in  the  involuntary  movements  which  are  made  in  response  to  the 
senses,  as  in  winking,  starting  back  at  a  sound,  etc.  The  cerebrum  acts 
automatically  in  cases  familiar  to  all.  A  large  part  of  our  mental  activity 
consists  of  this  unconscious  brain- work.  There  are  many  cases  in  which  the 
mind  has  obviously  reasoned  more  clearly  and  more  successfully  in  this 
automatic  condition,  when  left  entirely  to  itself,  than  when  we  have  been 
cudgeling  our  brains,  so  to  speak,  to  get  the  solution.  Oliver  Wendell 
Holmes  has  aptly  expressed  this  fact.  "  "We  wish,"  he  says,  "  to  remember 
something  in  the  course  of  conversation.  No  effort  of  the  will  can  reach 
it ;  but  we  say, '  Wait  a  minute,  and  it  will  come  to  me,1  and  we  go  on  talk- 
ing. Some  minutes  later,  the  idea  we  are  in  search  of  comes  all  at  once 
into  the  mind,  delivered  like  a  pre-paid  parcel,  or  like  a  foundling  in  a 
basket,  laid  at  the  door  of  consciousness.  How  it  came  there,  we  know  not. 
The  mind  must  have  been  at  work,  groping  and  feeling  for  it  in  the  dark ; 
it  can  not  have  come  of  itself.  Yet,  all  the  while,  our  consciousness,  so  far 
as  we  are  conscious  of  our  consciousness,  was  busy  with  other  thoughts." 

Some  interesting  personal  experiences  upon  this  point  are  given  in  an 
article  entitled  "The  Antechamber  of  Consciousness,"  by  Francis  Speir,  Jr., 
in  the  Popular  Science  Monthly  for  March,  1888. 


382  QUESTIONS     FOR     CLASS     USE. 

205.  State  its  value  in  the  formation  of  habits.     How  does 
the  brain  grow?    What  laws  govern  it?    What  must  be  the  ef- 
fect of  constant  light-reading?    Of  over-study  or  mental  labor? 

206.  State  the  relation  of  sleep  to  repair  and  waste.    How 
many  hours  does  each  person  need?    What   kind   of   work   re- 
quires most  sleep? 

206-208.  What  is  the  influence  of  sunlight  on  the  body? 
Illustrate.  Name  some  of  the  wonders  of  the  brain.  ; 

208-213.  What  four  stages  are  there  in  the  effect  of  alcohol 
on  the  nervous  system?  Describe  each.  Does  alcohol  confer 
any  permanent  strength?  What  is  the  physiological  effect  of 
alcohol  on  the  brain?  On  the  mental  and  moral  powers?  What 
is  the  Delirium  Tremens?  Should  a  man  be  punished  for  a 
crime  he  commits  while  drunk? 

214-218.  What  are  the  principal  constituents  of  tobacco? 
What  are  its  physiological  effects?  Who  are  most  likely  to 
escape  injury?  Is  tobacco  a  food?  What  is  its  influence  upon 
youth?  Why  are  cigarettes  specially  injurious?  What  effect 
does  tobacco  have  on  the  sensibilities?  Name  illustrations  of 
the  injurious  effect  of  tobacco  on  young^men. 

219-221.  How  is  opium  obtained?  What  is  its  physiological 
effect?  Which  form  of  using  it  is  most  injurious?  Can  one  give 
up  the  use  of  opium  when  he  pleases?  How  do  people  some- 
times take  opium  without  knowing  it? 

221.  What    is    the    harmful    influence    of   chloral   hydrate? 
Describe  its  different  physiological  effects. 

222.  Compare   its  influence   with   that   of  alcohol.     How   is 
chloroform  obtained  ?    Does  its  use  require  great  caution  ?    Illus- 
trate its  effects. 

223.  224.   What  is  cocaine?    What  is  its  value?    Its  physio- 
logical effect?    Its  dangers? 


331-333.  What  is  the  effect  of  extreme  anger?  Give  the 
physiological  explanation  of  this  deterioration.  What  two  or- 
gans particularly  suffer?  Illustrate.  To  what  cause  are  many 
suicides  referable?  How  can  one  secure  a  calm  and  tranquil 
life?  What  is  the  effect  of  forcing  the  brain  in  childhood? 

334.   Illustrate.     How  should  a  child  be  taught? 


THE     SPECIAL     SENSES.  383 

334,  335.  Why  should  we  not  exhaust  our  energies  to  the 
last  degree?  What  warnings  does  Nature  give  us?  Do  stimu- 
lants supply  force?  What  is  the  effect  of  mental  exhaustion? 
Which  is  the  most  common,  overwork  or  worry?  Most  danger- 
ous? What  is  worry?  Its  effect?  What  other  causes  often 
induce  insanity? 

336-338.  State  some  curiosities  of  sleep.  Some  conditions 
necessary  to  sound  and  healthful  slumber.  How  may  we  ac- 
quire the  habit  of  early  rising? 

338,  339.   Grive  some  of  the  results  of  dungeon  life. 

339-347.  What  can  you  say  of  the  growth  and  power  of 
poison  habits?  Illustrate.  How  does  physiological  ignorance 
often  cause  intemperance  ?  What  is  the  usual  result  of  a  stimu- 
lant habit?  In  what  virtue  lies  the  peril  of  narcotics?  Balance 
the  good  and  the  evil  in  their  use.  Illustrate  how  death  often 
results  from  chloroform  and  chloral.  What  common  result  is 
worse  than  death?  Compare  the  demoralization  in  the  cases  of 
the  opium-user  and  the  alcohol-drinker.  What  principle  of 
heredity  attaches  to  the  use  of  opium  ?  Give  instances  of  deaths 
from  tobacco,  opium,  etc.  What  can  you  say  of  cigarette-smok- 
ing? Chloral  hydrate?  The  bromides?  Absinthe?  Hasheesh? 


THE    SPECIAL    SENSES. 

229,  230.  What  is  a  sense  ?  Name  the  five  senses.  To  what 
organ  do  all  the  senses  minister?  If  the  nerve  leading  to  any 
organ  of  sense  be  cut,  what  would  be  the  effect?*  Sometimes 
persons  lose,  feeling  in  a  limb,  but  retain  motion ;  why  is  this  ? 
What  is  the  sense  of  touch  sometimes  called  ?  Describe  the 
organ  of  touch.  What  are  the  papilla3?  Where  are  they  most 
abundant?!  What  are  the  uses  of  this  sense?  What  special 

*  Each  organ  is  adapted  to  receive  a  peculiar  kind  of  impression. 
Hence  we  can  not  smell  with  the  eyes  nor  see  with  the  nose.  Thus,  if  the 
nerve  communicating  between  the  brain  and  any  organ  be  destroyed,  that 
means  of  knowledge  is  cut  off. 

t  If  we  apply  the  points  of  a  compass  blunted  with  cork  to  different 
parts  of  the  body,  we  can  distinguish  the  two  points  at  one  twenty-fourth 
of  an  inch  apart  on  the  tongue,  one  sixteenth  of  an  inch  on  the  lips,  one 


384  QUESTIONS     FOR     CLASS     USE. 

knowledge  do  we  obtain  by  it?  Why  do  we  always  desire  to 
handle  any  curious  object?  Can  the  sense  of  touch  always  be 
relied  upon  ?  Illustrate.  What  is  the  tactus  eruditus  ?  Tell  how 
one  sense  can  take  the  place  of  another.  Give  illustrations  of 
the  delicacy  of  touch  possessed  by  the  blind. 

230-232.  Describe  the  sense  of  taste.  How  can  you  see  the 
papillae  of  taste?  What  causes  the  velvety  look  of  the  tongue? 
Why  do  salt  and  bitter  flavors  induce  vomiting?  Why  does  an 
acid  "pucker"  the  face?  What  substances  are  tasteless?  Illus- 
trate. Has  sulphur  any  taste  ?  Chalk  ?  Sand  ?  What  is  the  use 
of  this  sense?  Does  it  not  also  add  to  the  pleasures  of  life? 
Why  are  the  acts  of  eating,  drinking,  etc.,  thus  made  sources 
of  happiness? 

232,  233.  Describe  the  organ  of  smell.  State  the  intimate 
relation  which  exists  between  the  senses  of  smell  and  taste. 
Name  some  common  mistakes  which  occur  in  consequence. 
Must  the  object  to  be  smelled  touch  the  nose?  What  is  the 
theory  of  smell?  How  do  you  account  for  the  statement  made 
in  the  note  concerning  musk  and  ambergris?  What  are  the 
uses  of  this  sense?  Are  agreeable  odors  healthful,  and  disagree- 
able ones  unhealthful? 

234-236.  Describe  the  organ  of  hearing.  Describe  the  ex- 
ternal ear.  What  is  the  tympanum  or  drum  of  the  ear?  De- 
scribe the  middle  ear.  Name  the  bones  of  the  ear.  Describe 
their  structure.  Describe  the  internal  ear.  By  what  other  name 
is  it  known  ?  What  substances  float  in  the  liquid  which  fills  the 
labyrinth?  What  is  their  use?  Describe  the  fibers  of  Corti. 
What  do  they  form?  Use  of  this  microscopic  harp?  Give  the 
theory  of  sound.  Where  is  the  sound,  in  the  external  object  or 
in  the  mind?  Can  there  be  any  sound,  then,  where  there  is  no 
mind?  What  advice  is  given  concerning  the  care  of  the  ear? 
How  can  insects  be  removed?  Which  sense  would  you  rather 
lose,  hearing  or  sight?  Does  not  a  blind  person  always  excite 
more  sympathy  than  a  deaf  one?  How  does  the  sight  assist 
the  hearing?* 

twelfth,  of  an  inch  on  the  tips  of  the  fingers,  and  one  half  inch  on  the 
great  toe  ;  while,  if  they  are  one  inch  on  the  cheek,  and  two  inches  on  the 
back,  they  will  scarcely  produce  a  separate  sensation.— HUXLEY. 

*  In  hearing,  the  attention  is  more  or  less  characteristic.    If  we  wish  to 


THE     SPECIAL     SENSES.  385 

236,  237.  Describe  the  eye.  Name  the  three  coats  of  which 
it  is  composed.  Is  it  a  perfect  sphere?  Ans.  The  cornea  pro- 
jects in  front,  and  the  optic  nerve  at  the  back  sticks  out  like  a 
handle,  while  the  ball  itself  has  its  longest  diameter  from  side 
to  side.  How  is  the  interior  divided?  Object  of  the  crystalline 
lens?  How  is  the  crystalline  lens  kept  in  place?  Describe  the 
liquids  which  fill  the  eye. 

238.  What  is  the  pupil?     Describe  the  eyelids.    Why  is  the 
inner  side   of  the  eyelid  so  sensitive?    What  is  the  cause  of  a 
black  eye?     Use   of   the   eyelashes?     Where  are  the   oil  glands 
located?     What   is   their   use?     Describe   the   lachrymal   gland. 
The  lachrymal  lake.    What  causes  the  overflow  in  old  age? 

239.  Explain  the  structure  of  the  retina.      Use  of  the  rods 
and  cones.     What  is 'the.  blind  spot? 

240.  Illustrate.    What  is  the  theory  of  sight?    Illustrate. 

241.  242.   State  tBe  action  of  the  crystalline  lens.     Its  power 
of  adaptation.     Do  children  ever  need  spectacles? 

243.  What   is  the  cataract?     How   cured?     What  is  color- 
blindness?    Illustrate.     What  care  should  be  taken  of  the  eyes? 
Should    one    constantly    lean    forward    over  his  book  or  work? 
What  special  care  should  near-sighted  children  take?     By  what 
carelessness  may  we  impair  our  sight? 

244.  How  is  squinting  caused?     Cured?     What  care  should 
be  used  after  an  illness?     Should  we  ever  read  or  write  at  twi- 
light?    Danger  of  reading  upon  the  cars?    What  course  should 
we  take  when  objects  get  into  the  eye  ?     How  may  they  be  re- 
moved ? 

245.  Are   "eye-stones"   useful?     Why  should  we  never  use 

distinguish  a  distant  noise,  or  perceive  a  sound,  the  head  inclines  and 
turns  in  such  a  manner  as  to  present  the  external  ear  in  the  direction  of 
the  sound,  at  the  same  time  the  eyes  are  fixed  and  partially  closed.  The 
movement  of  the  lips  of  his  interlocutor  is  the  usual  means  by  which  the 
deaf  man  supplies  the  want  of  hearing;  the  eyes  and  the  entire  head, 
from  its  position,  having  a  peculiar  and  painful  expression  of  attention. 
In  looking  at  the  portrait  of  L/a  Condamine,  it  was  easily  recognized  as 
that  of  a  deaf  person.  Even  when  hearing  is  perfect,  the  eyes  act  some- 
times as  auxiliaries  to  it.  In  order  to  understand  an  orator  perfectly,  it 
seems  necessary  to  see  him— the  gestures  and  the  expression  of  the  face 
seeming  to  add  to  the  clearness  of  the  words.  The  lesson  of  a  teacher  can 
not  be  well  understood  if  any  obstacle  is  interposed  between  him  and  the 
eyes  of  the  listening  pupil'.  So  that  if  a  pupil's  eyes  wander,  we  know  that 
he  is  not  attentive.—  Wonders  of  the  Human  Body. 


886  QUESTIONS     FOR     CLASS    USE. 

eye-washes  except  upon  the  advice  of  a  competent  physician? 
What  rule  should  be  observed  with  regard  to  the  direction  of 
the  light  when  we  are  at  work?  Name  some  causes  of  near- 
sightedness.  Remedies. 


346.   G-ive  the  account  of  Laura  Bridgman. 

347-350.  Describe  the  anatomy  of  the  nose.  In  what  part 
of  the  nose  is  the  function  of  smell  performed?  Why  do  we 
"sniff"  when  our  attention  is  attracted  by  an  odor?  Give  some 
experiments  which  illustrate  the  connection  between  smell,  taste, 
and  touch.  Why  should  we  retain*  our  food  in  the  mouth  as 
long  as  possible?  Of  what  use  are  gastronomic  odors? 

350.  Why  should  a  child's  ear  never  be  boxed?     Illustrate. 
How  can  we  detect  inattention  from  deafness  in  a  child  ?    What 
should  we  consider  in  this  respect? 

351.  Why  should  we  avoid  direct  draughts  in  the  ear?    Ex- 
plain the  use  of  ear-wax.    What  common  habit  is  very  injurious? 
Why? 

352,  353.   What  is  the  office  of  the  Eustachian  tube?     Illus- 
trate. 

353,  354.   Describe   the   action   of  the   "eye-curtain."     Give 
experiments.      What   are    "Purkinje's   Figures"?     Describe   ex- 
periment. 


HEALTH    AND    DISEASE. 

251-254.  State  some  of  the  benefits  of  health.  Contrast  it 
with  sickness.  How  were  diseases  formerly  supposed  to  be 
caused?  What  remedies  were  used?  What  does  modern  science 
teach  us  to  be  the  nature  of  disease?  Give  some  illustrations 
showing  how  diseases  may  be  prevented.  Is  it  probable  that 
the  body  was  intended  to  give  out  in  any  one  of  its  organs? 
What  is  the  first  step  to  be  taken  in  the  cure  of  a  disease? 
What  should  be  the  object  of  medicine?  What  is  now  the 
chief  dependence  of  the  best  physicians?  What  do  you  think 
concerning  the  common  use  of  patent  nostrums?  Ought  we  not 
to  use  the  greatest  care  in  the  selection  of  our  physician? 


GLOSSARY. 


A b  do'  men  (dbdo,  I  conceal).     The  largest  cavity  in  the  body, 

in  which  are  hidden  the  intestines,  stomach,  elc. 
Ab  sorb'  ent  (ab,  from ;    sorbeo,  I  suck  up). 
A$'e  tab'u  lum  (acetum,  vinegar).     The  socket  for  holding  the 

head    of    the    thigh-bone,    shaped    like    an    ancient    vinegar 

vessel. 

A  ee'tic  (acetum,  vinegar). 
Ad'i  pose.     Fatty. 
Al  bu'  men   (albus,  white).      A  substance  resembling  the  white 

of  egg. 

Al  bu/mi  nous  substances  contain  much  albumen. 
Al'i  ment'a  ry.     Pertaining  to  food. 
Al'ka  line  (-1m)  substances  neutralize  acids. 
An'ses  thet'ic.      A   substance    that    destroys    the   feeling   of 

pain. 

A  6r'  ta.    The  largest  artery  of  the  body. 
Ap'o  pi  ex  y  (-plek-se).      A  disease  marked  by  loss  of  sensation 

and  voluntary  motion. 
A'que  ous  (a'-kwe-us).     Watery. 
A  ra-eh'noid  (araohne,  a    spider;    eidos,  form).      A  membrane 

like  a  spider's  web  covering  the  brain. 
Ar'bdrvi'tse  means  "the  tree  of  life." 
Ar'  ter  y  (aer,  air ;    tereo,   I  contain).      So  named  because  after 

death  the   arteries  contain  air  only,  and  hence  the  ancients 

supposed  them  to  be  air-tubes  leading  through  the  body. 
Ar  tic'  u  late  (articulo,  I  form  a  joint). 
Ar  tic'  u  la  tion.    A  joint. 
As  phyx'ia  (-fix-e-a).     Literally,  no-pulse;    apparent  death. 


388  GLOSSARY. 

As  sim'i  la'tion  is  the  process  of  changing  food  into  flesh,  etc. 
At' las.     So  called  because,  as  in  ancient  fable  the  god  Atlas 

supported  the  globe  on  his  shoulders,  so   in  the  body  this 

bone  bears  the  head. 

Au'di  to  ry  Nerve.     The  nerve  of  hearing. 
Au'ri  cle  (-kl)  (auris,  ear)  of  the   heart.      So    named   from   its 

shape. 

Biceps.     A  muscle  with  two  heads,  or  origins. 

Bi  -eus"  pid.     Tooth  with  two  points  ;  also  a  valve  of  the  heart. 

Bron'-ehi  (-kl).     The  two  branches  of  the  windpipe. 

Bron'-ehi  al  Tubes.     Subdivisions  of  bronchi. 

Bur  sa  (a  purse).     Small  sac  containing  fluid  near  a  joint. 

Ca  nine"  (eanis,  a  dog)  teeth  are  like  dog's  teeth. 

Cap'il  la  ries  (capillus,  a  hair).     A  system  of  tiny  blood-vessels. 

Car'bon.    Pure  charcoal. 

Carb6n/ic   Acid.     A  deadly  gas  given  off  by  the  lungs  and 

by  fires. 
Car6t'ids  (karos,  lethargy).    Arteries  of  the  neck,    so  named 

because  the  ancients  supposed  them  to  be  the  seat  of  sleep. 
Car7  pus.     The  wrist. 
Car7  ti  lage.    Gristle. 

Cell.    A  minute  sac,  usually  with  soft  walls  and  fluid  contents. 
Cel'lu  lar  (ceMula,  a  little  cell).    Full  of  cells. 
CSr'ebel'lum.    The  little  brain. 
CSr'e  brum.     A  Latin  word  meaning  brain. 
Cer'vi  cal.     Relating  to  the  neck. 

Chlo'ral  (klo)  Hy'drate.     A  drug  used  to  induce  sleep. 
Cho'roid.     The  second  coat  of  the  eye. 
Chyle  (kile).     A  milky  juice  formed  in  digestion. 
Chyme  (kime).     From  chumos,  juice. 

Cir'eu  la'tion.    The  course  of  the  blood  through  the  body. 
Cil'i  6  (the  plural  of  cilium,  an  eyelash).      Hair-like  projections 

in  the  air-passages. 

Clav'i  cle  (kl&v'-i-kl).     From  clavis,  a  key. 
Co  ag'u  la'tion.    A  clotting  of  blood. 
C6-e'9yx  (a  cuckoo).     A  bony  mass  below  the  sacrum. 
Co-eh'lea.    A  Latin  word  meaning  snail-shell.     See  Ear. 


GLOSSARY.  389 

Com'  pound.     A  substance  composed  of  two  or  more  elements. 
Con  ta'  £ i  ous  diseases  are  those  caught  by  contact,  the  breath, 

etc. 

Con'  trac  til'  i  ty  (con,  together  ;    traho,  I  draw). 
Con'vo  lu'tion  (con,  together;    volvo,  I  roll). 
C6r'ne  a  (cornu,  a  horn).     A  transparent,  horn-like  window  in 

the  eye. 
Cor' pus  £le  (kor'-pus-l).      From  a  Latin  word  meaning  a  little 

body.     It  is  applied  to  the  disks  of  the  blood. 
Cra'ni  al.     Relating  to  the  skull. 
Crys'tal  line  (crystallum,  a  crystal). 
Cu  ta'  ne  ous  (cutis,  skin).     Pertaining  to  the  skin. 
Cu'ti  cle  (ku'-ti-kl).     From  a  Latin  word  meaning  little  skin. 
Cu'tis,  the  true  skin. 

Den'tal  (dens,  dentis,  a  tooth). 

Di'a  phragm  (-fr&m).  The  muscle  dividing  the  abdomen  from 
the  chest. 

Di  as' to  le  (diastello,  I  put  asunder).    Dilation  of  the  heart. 

Dis'lo  ca'tion.     A  putting  out  of  joint. 

Ddr'sal  (dorsum,  the  back). 

Duct.    A  small  tube. 

Du  ode'num  (duodeni,  twelve  each). 

Du'ra  Ma'ter  (durus,  hard;  mater,  mother).  The  outer  mem- 
brane of  the  brain. 

Dys  pep' si  a  is  a  difficulty  of  digestion. 

E  lim'i  nate     To  expel. 

Ep'idem'ic.  A  disease  affecting  a  great  number  of  persons 
at  once. 

Ep'  i  derm'  is.     The  cuticle. 

Ep'igl6t'tis  (epi,  upon;  glottis,  the  tongue).  The  lid  of  the 
windpipe. 

Ep'i  the' li  um.  The  outer  surface  of  mucous  or  serous  mem- 
branes. 

Eu  sta'-ehi  an  (yu-sta'-ki-an)  Tube.  So  named  from  its  discov- 
erer, an  Italian  physician. 

Excre'tion,     Waste  particles   thrown    off   by  the 
organs, 


390  GLOSSARY. 

Fer'men  ta'tion.     The  process  by  which  sugar  is  turned  into 

alcohol. 

Fl'brm  (fibra,  a  fiber). 
Fir  a  ment  (filum,  a  thread). 
Function.     See  Organ. 

Gan'gli  on  (gang'-gli-on).     From  ganglion,  a  knot;   plu.  ganglia. 

Gas' trie  (gaster,  stomach). 

Glands  (glSndz).    From   glans,   a   Latin   word   meaning    acorn. 

Their  object  is  to  secrete  in  their  cells  some  liquid  from  the 

blood. 
G16t'tis.     The  opening  at  the  top  of  the  larynx. 

Hu'merus.     The  arm-bone. 

Hu'mor.     A  Latin  word  meaning  moisture. 

Hy'dro  gen.     The  lightest  gas  known,  and  one  of  the  elements 

of  water. 

Hy'gi  ene.     From  a  Greek  word  meaning  health. 
H^p'o  glos'sal.      Literally  "under   the   tongue";    a  nerve  of 

the  tongue. 

In  £i's6r  (incido,  I  cut)  teeth  are  cutting  teeth. 
In'spi  ra'tion  (in  and  spiro,  I  breathe  in). 
In  teVtine  (-tin).    From  intus,  within. 

La-eh'ry  mal  (lachryma,  a  tear).    Pertaining  to  tears. 

La-e'teal  (lac,  lactis,  milk).  So  called  from  the  milky  look  of 
the  chyle  during  digestion. 

La  -eu'  na,  plu.  lacunae  (lakos,  a  hole).  Cavities  in  the  bone- 
structure. 

Lar'ynx  (laV-mx).     The  upper  part  of  the  windpipe. 

Lig'a  ments  (ligo,  I  bind)  tie  bones  together. 

LtX'brf  cate.     To  oil  in  order  to  prevent  friction. 

Lttm'bar  (kimbus,  a  loin).    Pertaining  to  the  loins. 

L^mph  (limf).    From  lympha,  pure  water. 

L^m  phat'ic  (lim-fat'-ik). 

Mas'ti  ca'tion.     The  act  of  chewing. 

Me  dul'ia  Ob  Ion  ga'ta,    The  upper  part  of  the  spinal  cord, 


GLOSSARY.  391 

Mem'brane.     A  thin  skin,  or  tissue. 

Mesentery.      The    membrane    by  which    the    intestines    are 

fastened  to  the  spine. 

Met' a  car' pal  (meta,  after;  karpos,  wrist). 
Met7 a  tar' sal  (meta,  after;   tarsos,  the  instep). 
Mi'cro  scope  (mikros,  small ;  skopeo,  I  see). 
Mo'lar  (mola,  a  mill)  teeth  are  the  grinders. 
Mor'phlne  (Morpheus,  the  Greek  god  of  sleep). 
Mo' to  ry.     Giving  motion. 
Mu'cous  (-kus)  Membrane.    A  thin  tissue,  or  skin,  covering 

the  open  cavities  of  the  body.     See  Serous. 
Mu'eus.     A   fluid    secreted    by  a   membrane    and    serving   to 

lubricate  it. 

Mus'cle  (miis'-sl).     A  bundle  of  fibers  covered  by  a  membrane. 
My  6' pi  a  (muo,  I  contract;  ops,  the  eye). 

NarcSt'ic.    A  drug  producing  sleep. 

Na'sjal  (na'-zal).    From  nasus,  the  nose. 

Nerve  (neuron,  a  cord). 

Ni'tro  gen  Gas  is  the  passive  element  of  the  air. 

Ni  trog'e  nous.     Containing  nitrogen. 

Nu  trf'tion.     The  process  by  which  the  body  is  nourished. 

CEsoph'agus  (e-sof-a-gus).  The  gullet;  literally,  a  "food- 
carrier." 

Ol  fac'to  ry.    Pertaining  to  the  smell. 

Or'gan.  An  organ  is  a  portion  of  the  body  designed  for  a 
particular  use,  which  is  called  its  function;  thus  the  heart 
circulates  the  blood. 

Os'  se  ous  (-sheus).     Bone-like. 

Os'sl  fy  (ossa,  bones;   facio,  I  make). 

Ox  i  da'tion.     The  process  of  combining  with  oxygen. 

Ox'y  gen.     The  active  element  of  the  air. 

Pal' ate  (palatum,  the  palate).     Eoof  of  the  mouth. 
Pan' ere  as  (pas,  all;    kreas,  flesh).     An  organ  of  digestion. 
Pa  piria,  plu.  papillae.     Tiny  cone-like  projections. 
Paral'ysis.    A  disease  in  which  one  loses  sensation,  or  the 
power  of  motion,  or  both. 


392  GLOSSARY. 

Pa  r6t'  id   (para,    near ;    ous,    otos,    ear).     One    of  the   salivary 

glands. 

Pa  teTla  (a  little  dish).     The  knee-pan. 
Pec' to  ral.     Pertaining  to  the  chest. 
Pep' sin  (pepto,  I  digest).     The  chief  constituent  of  the  gastric 

juice. 

Per'  i  car'  di  um  (peri,  around  ;  kardia,  the  heart).    The  mem- 
brane wrapping  the  heart. 
Per'i6s'teum    (peri,  around;    osteon,  bone).     The   membrane 

around  the  bone. 
Per'i  stal'tic  (peri,  round;    stallein,  to  arrange).      Applied  to 

the  worm-like  movement  of  the  alimentary  canal. 
Phar'ynx  (far'-mx).     From  pharugx,  the  throat. 
Pl'a  Ma'ter  (tender  mother).     See  Brain. 
Pig 'merit.     A  paint. 

Plas'ma  (plaz'-mah).     The  nutritious  fluid  of  the  blood. 
Pleu'ra   (plu'-rah).      From  pleura,  a  rib.      The  membrane  that 

lines  the  chest  and  wraps  the  lungs. 
Pres  by  o'pi  a  (presbus,  old ;    ops,  the  eye).      A  defect  in  the 

eye  common  to  old  age. 
Pr6  cess.      A    projection.     Sometimes    it    retains    its    ordinary 

meaning  of  "  operation." 
Py  lo'  PUS    (a    gate).      The    door- way  through   which  the   food 

passes  from  the  stomach. 
Pul"  mo  na  ry  (pulmo,  the  lungs).     Pertaining  to  the  lungs. 

Ra'di  us.     A   Latin   word   meaning   the   spoke   of  a  wheel,   a 

ray,  etc. 

Ram'i  fy.     To  spread  like  the  branches  of  a  tree. 
Res' pi  ra'tion  (re,  again;   spiro,  I  breathe).     Act  of  breathing. 
RSt'i  na  (rete,  a  net).     The  expansion  of  the  optic  nerve  in  the 

eye. 

Sa'crum   (sacred).      So  named,  it  is  said,  because  this  bone  of 

the  pelvis  was  anciently  offered  in  sacrifice. 
Sa  IT'va.     A  Latin  word  meaning  spittle;    the  fluid  secreted  by 

the  salivary  glands. 
Scap'  u  la.     The  shoulder-blade. 
Scav'en$er.    A  street-sweeper, 


GLOSSAKY.  393 

Sele  r6t'ic  (skle-rot'-ic).     The  outer  coat  of  the  eye. 

Se«re'tion  (secretum,  to  separate). 

Sed'  en  ta  ry  persons  are  those  who  sit  much. 

Sen' so  ry  Nerves.    The  nerves  of  feeling. 

Se'rous  Membrane.  A  thin  tissue,  or  skin,  covering  the 
cavities  of  the  body  that  are  not  open  to  the  external  air. 

Se'rum.     The  thin  part  of  the  blood. 

Subcla'vi  an.     Located  under  the  clavicle. 

Sub  lin'gual  (sub,  under;  lingua,  the  tongue).  The  salivary 
gland  located  under  the  tongue. 

Sub  max'il  la  ry  (sub,  under;  maxilla,  jaw-bone).  The  sali- 
vary gland  located  under  the  jaw. 

S^n  o'  vi  a  (sun,  with ;  oon,  egg).  A  fluid  that  lubricates  the 
joints. 

Syn  6'vi  al  Membrane  packs  the  joints. 

Sys'to  le  (sustello,  I  contract).     Contraction  of  the  heart. 

Tem'po  ral.    An  artery  on  the  temple  (tempus,  time),  so  called 

because,  as  is  said,  the  hair  whitens  first  at  that  point. 
Ten'  dons  (tendo,  I  stretch).     The  cords  conveying  motion  from 

the  muscle  to  the  bone. 

Tho'rax  (a  breast-plate).     The  cavity  containing  the  lungs,  etc. 
Tib'ia.    The  shin-bone. 
T is' sue.     A  general  term  applied  to  the  textures  of  which  the 

different  organs  are  composed ;    osseous  tissue  forms  bones. 
Tra'-ehe  a  (tra'-ke-a).     Means  rough,  alluding  to  the  roughened 

surface  of  the  windpipe. 

Triceps.    A  muscle  with  three  heads,  or  origins. 
Tri  -eus"  pid  (tres,  three  ;    cuspis,  point).     A  valve  of  the  heart. 
Tym'pa  num  (a  drum)  of  the  ear. 

Vas'eu  lar  (vasculum,  little  vessel).    Full  of  small  blood-vessels. 

Ven'tri  cle  (-kl).    A  cavity  of  the  heart. 

Ver'te  bra,  plu.  vertebrae  (verto,    I   turn).      A  term  applied  to 

each  one  of  the  bones  of  the  spine. 
Vll'lus  (villus,  tuft  of  hair),  plu.  villi. 
Wtl  ate.    To  taint.    To  spoil. 
Vlt're  ous  (vitrum,  glas.s).     Glassy. 
Vo'mer  (plowshare).     A  bone  of  the  nose. 


INDEX 


PAGE 

ABDOMEN 80,  284,  329 

Abdominal  Respiration 299 

Absinthe 343 

Absorbing  power  of  the  skin....     62 

Absorption  of  food 165 

Achilles,  Tendon  of 35,  284 

Adam's  apple 73 

Air,  Composition  of 83 

"     Need  of 83 

"    Action  of 83 

Air-cells 78 

Albinos 51 

Albumen 154 

Albuminous  bodies. 154 

Alcohol 131,  177,  208 

"   -as  a  Narcotic 208 

"    Cause  of  Degeneration 143 

"    Effect  on  Blood 144 

"   Brain 210 

"         "        "    Circulation 141 

"    Digestion 180 

"         "        "    Heat  of  body. ..  182 

"         "        "    Heart 141 

"         "        "    Kidneys 181 

"         "        "    Liver 181 

"         "        "    Lungs 145 

"        "    Membranes 143 

"         "        "    Mental  Powers.  209 

"         "        "   Muscle 183 

"         "        "   Nervous  System  208 

"         "        "   Waste 184 

Alcoholism 185,  338 

Alimentary  canal 158 

Ameeba ...  . .  158 


PAGE 
Anatomy,  Definition  of... Preface      v 

Ankle-joint 20,  281 

Antidotes  for  poisons 265,  266 

Aorta 115 

Apoplexy 261 

Aqueous  humor. 237 

Arachnoid  membrane 193 

Areolar  (connective)  tissue 55 

Armless  Artist,  An 273 

Arterial  blood 114 

Arteries 114 

Articulation 76 

Asphyxia 264 

Assimilation 158 

Atlas 12 

Auditory  nerve  — 235 

Auricles  of  the  heart Ill 

Axis 13 

BACK-BONE 12 

Baldness,  Causes  of 285 

Ball-and-socket  joint — 19 

Base-ball  playing 285 

Baths  and  Bathing 63,  289-293 

Bed  ventilation 94,  313 

Beef .' 168 

Bicuspid  teeth 57 

Bicuspid  valve Ill 

Bicycling 284 

Bile 164,  167 

Black  Hole  of  Calcutta 85 

Bleeding,  Checking  of 128 

Blood,  The 105 

Blood-crystals 107 


396 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Blushing 127 

Bones,  The 3 

"      Attachment  of  muscles  to  275 

Bow-legs 22 

Brain 193 

"    Circulation  of  blood  in  the  314 
"    Over-stimulation  of  the....  331 

"    Exercise 205 

Bread 169 

Breast-bone 14 

Breathing 80,  280,  282 

Bridgman,  Laura 345 

Bromides,  The 343 

Bronchi 78 

Bronchitis 97 

Burns 257 

Bursa 45 

CALLUS 270 

Canal,  Alimentary 158 

"      Semi-circular 235 

"      Haversian 7 

Canine  teeth 57 

Capillaries 117 

Carbonaceous  food 154 

Carbonic  acid 83 

Carpus 17 

Cartilage 8 

Casein 154 

Cataract 243 

Catarrh 130,  315 

CeU 175 

Cellar,  A  typical  bad 311 

Cellar  wall,  What  came  from  a  312 

Cellars,  How  to  construct 307 

Cells  of  blood 105 

u      "  brain 191 

"      "  lungs 79 

Cerebellum 196 

Cerebrum 193 

Cess-pools,  Dangers  from...  309,  311 

Change  of  our  bodies v 122 

Cheese 169,  321 

Chest 14,  299 

Chilblain 69 

Chloral  hydrate 221,  341,  343 


PAGE 

Chloroform 222,  340 

Chocolate 171 

Choking 262 

Choroid 237 

Chyle 165 

Chyme 163 

Cigarette-smoking 217,  342 

Cilia,  The 79 

Ciliary  processes 238 

Circulation 119,  314 

Clavicle 15 

Climbing 281 

Clothing 66,  281,  295,  300 

Coagulation 109 

Cocaine 223,  342 

Coccyx 3 

Cochlea 235 

Coffee.... 170,  322 

Cold,  A 129 

Cold,  Catching 316 

Colds,  Catarrhal 315 

Cold  bath 63 

Collar-bone 15 

Complexion,  The 51,  329 

Congestion 126,  330 

Connective  tissue 55 

Constipation 328 

Consumption 97 

Cooking  of  food 171 

Cords,  Vocal 73 

Corn 169 

Cornea 237 

Corns 68 

Corpuscles 104 

Cortian  fibers 236 

Cosmetics 63 

Cotton 66 

Coughing 81 

Cranial  nerves 199 

Croup 98,  260 

Crying 81 

Crystalline  lens 237 

"    Adjustment  of..  224 

Curvature  of  the  spine  ...   22 

Cuticle,  The 50 

Cutis,  The 49 


INDEX. 


397 


PAGE 

DECAY 122,  254,  282 

Degeneration 143,  181 

Dentals,  The ....     77 

Dentine 58 

Dermis 49 

Diaphragm 79,  80 

Diastole 110 

Diffusion  of  gases 85,  166 

Digestion 158,  317,  324,  330 

Digits 15 

Diphtheria 98 

Disease,  Q-erm  Theory  of 300 

Diseases,  etc.,  21,  43,  67,  96, 126,  176 

Disinfectants 256 

Diving 283 

Dreams 334 

Dress 281,  282,  295-297,  300 

Drinking-water 317 

Drowning 264,  293 

Duodenum 163 

Dura  mater 193 

Dyed  clothing,  Poisonously 296 

Dyspepsia 176,  324 

EAE,  The 234,  350 

Eating,  Over 177,  326 

Eating,  Rapid 172,  349 

Eating,  Regularity  in 174,  325 

Eggs 168,  169 

Elbow-joint 16 

Enamel  of  teeth 59 

Epidermis 49 

Epiglottis 73 

Epilepsy 261 

Epithelium 164 

Erysipelas 67 

Ether 240 

Eustachian  tube 236,  352 

Exercise,  Muscular 40 

"         Effects  of  insufficient..  280 

"         Popular  modes  of 280 

Brain 205 

Too  violent 278,  279 

Expiration 80 

Eye,  The 236 

"     Adjustment  of  the....  241,  352 


PAGE 

Eye,  Colored  curtain  in  the 353 

"     Muscles  of  the 31 

"     Things  in  the 244 

Eyelids 238 

Eye-stones. 245 

Eye-wash 245 

PACE,  Bones  of 9 

"      Expression  of 205 

Fat-cells 56 

Fats,  The 154 

Felon 22 

Femur 18 

Ferments 132,  133,  301 

Fever 263,  316 

Fibrin 106,  109 

Fibula 20 

Fish 169,  322 

Fits.... 261 

Flannel 66 

Fontanelles,  The 5 

Food,  Absorption  of  165 

"     Cooking  of 171 

"      Digestion  of 158 

"     Kinds  of 168 

"     Need  of 153 

"      Quantity  of 172 

Foot,  The 20,  271 

Foot-ball  games 285 

Fractures 270 

Frost-bite 263 

Fruits 170,  325 

Furs 67 

Q- ALL-BLADDER  (cyst) 79,   164 

Gf-anglion,  A 45 

"          A  nerve 191 

Gaping 82 

Garbage,  How  to  dispose  of 308 

Gastric-juice 162,  163,  320 

Gelatine 4,     56 

Germ  theory  of  disease,  The....  300 

Germs  grow,  How  disease 301 

"       in  dust,  Disease,  86,  303,  308 

"       in  soiled  clothing 304 

"       in  air 94,  306,  316 


398 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

G-erms  in  water 94,  317 

"       in  bad  sewage 306,  309 

"       in  ice 319 

Glands,  Gastric 162 

"        Lachrymal 238 

"        Lymphatic 125 

"        Parotid 159 

"        Perspiratory 61 

"        Sebaceous 60 

Glosso-pharyngeal  nerve .........  200 

Glottis 73 

Glycogen   167 

Gout,  The 44 

Gristle 8 

Gymnastics 285 

HABITS „ 205 

Haemoglobin 108 

Hair,  The 52 

"      Care  of 285,286 

"     Blanching  of 286,287 

Hair-dyes 63 

Hallux 272 

Hand,  The 17,  271 

Hasheesh 344,  345 

Haversian  canals 7 

Head 9 

Hearing 234,  350 

Heart 110 

Heat,  Distribution  of 120 

"      Regulation  of 121 

"       Production  of 121,  154 

Heredity 185,  341 

Hiccough 81 

Hinge-joints 16 

Hip,  The 18 

Home,  The  sanitary. 305-314 

Horseback-riding 284 

Hot  baths 65,  290 

Humerus 16 

Hygiene,  Definition  of ...  .Preface      v 
Hypoglossal  nerve 201 

INCISOR  teeth 57 

Indian  corn 169 

Indigestion 172,  177,  324 


PAGE 

Inferior  vena  cava Ill 

Inflammation  127 

In-growing  nails 68 

Innominata 14 

Inspiration 80,  281 

Internal  ear,  The 234,  351 

Intestines,  The 163,  329 

Involuntary  muscles 29 

Iris,  The 238,  353 

Iron 155 

JOINTS 8 

Juice,  Gastric 162,  163,  320 

"       Intestinal 163 

"      Pancreatic 165 

KNEE-CAP,  The 36 

"     joint,  The 36 

LABIALS,  The 77 

Labyrinth,  The 234 

Lachrymal  canals 238 

"          glands 238 

"          lake,  The 238 

Lacteals 126,  165 

Lacunae. 7 

Lamb 168 

Larynx 73 

Laughing 81 

Lens,  Crystalline 237 

Levers 32 

Life  by  death 122,  254 

Ligaments 9 

Light,  The.... 78,  336,  352 

Lime ' 155,  257 

Linen 66,  304 

Linguals 77 

Liver 164,  179,  331 

Locked-jaw 44 

Lumbago 45 

Lungs,  The 79 

"       Constriction  of  the 96 

Lunula 288 

Lymph,  The 125 

Lymphatic  circulation 124 

Lymphatics,  Office  of. 125 


INDEX. 


399 


PAGE 

MAN,  Comparative  anat.  of,  269,  272 

Marrow 7 

Mastication 159 

Medulla  oblongata 200 

Membrane 55 

Mucous 54 

"  Serous 110 

Metacarpal  bones 17 

Milk 169 

Milk-teeth 57 

Molars 57 

Morphine 342 

Mucous  membrane 54 

Mumps,  The 177 

Muscles  of  the  body 28,  275 

"         "     "    eye 31 

Contractility  of 27 

Number  of 27 

"         Tendons  of 30 

Voluntary 29,  278 

"         to  bones,  Attachment  of,  275 

Muscular  fibers 276 

"          sense 39 

Mutton 168 

NAILS,  The 54,  287 

"       In-growing 68 

Narcotics 208,  340 

Near-sight 241 

Nerves,  The 197 

"        Cranial 199 

Spinal 199 

"        of  motion 198 

"        of  sensation 198 

"        Sympathetic 201 

Nervous  system 191,  330 

Nitrogenous  food 154 

Nose,  The 232,  347 

OCULI  motores,  The 199 

Odors ' 232 

(Esophagus 160 

Oils,  The '. 154 

Olfactory  nerve 232 

Opium 218,  342 

Optic  nerve 237 


PAGE 

Organs,  Definition  of 3 

"        of  circulation 105 

"         "   digestion 157 

"         "   respiration 73 

"         "    the  voice 73 

Osmose 166 

Ossification 5 

Otoliths 235 

Overwork 331,  333 

Oxidation 107,  151 

Oxygen 83 

PALATE,  The 74 

Pancreas 165 

Pancreatic  juice 163,  165 

Papillee 52 

Parotid  gland 159 

Passions,  Effect  of  violent 330 

Patella,  The 20,  36 

Pelvis,  The 15 

Pepsin 162 

Pericardium 110 

Periosteum 7 

Peristaltic  movement 160 

Peritoneum 163 

Perspiration,  The 62 

Phalanges 20 

Pharynx 74 

Phosphorus 156 

Physiology,  Definition  of . .  Preface 

Pia  mater 193 

Pigment 51,  287,  330 

Plasma 105 

Pleura 79 

Pleurisy 97 

Pneumogastric  nerve  , 200 

Pneumonia 97 

Poison  habits 185,  218,  338 

Poisonously  dyed  clothing 296 

Poisonous  milk 321 

Poisons,  Antidotes  to 265 

"         Sporadic 307 

Pork 168 

Portal  Vein 116,  148,  166 

Potatoes 169 

Processes . .  12,  36 


400 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Ptyalin 159 

Pulmonary  arteries 119 

veins 119 

Pulse 115,  314 

Pupil 238 

Pylorus 162 

RADIUS 17 

Rapid  eating 172 

Reaction 64 

Reflex  action 202 

Respiration 73,  297 

Abdominal 299 

Retina 237,  354 

Rheumatism 44 

Ribs,  The 13 

Rickets,  The 21 

Rising  early,  The  art  of 336 

Rowing 281 

Russian  bath,  The 65,  290 

SACRUM,  The 15 

St.  Vitus'  Dance 43 

Saliva,  The 159 

Salivary  glands 159 

Salt 156 

Scapula 15 

Sclerotic  coat 237 

Scrofula 128 

Sea-bathing 65 

Sebaceous  glands 61 

Secretion,  Definition  of 159 

Semi-lunar  valves 113 

Senses,  The 229 

of  hearing 234,  350 

"  "  sight 236,  354 

"  smell  232,  348 

"  "  taste 230,  348 

"  touch 229,  345 

Serous  membrane 110 

Serum 109 

Sewers 309-311 

Shoes,  Hygienic 21,  274 

Shoulder-blade 16 

-joint 16 

Sick,  Care  of 256 


PAGE 

Sick-room 255 

Sighing 81 

Sight,  Sense  of  236 

Sinew  (tendon) 30 

Skating 281 

Skeleton,  The 3,  269 

Skin,  The 49,  285 

Skull,  The 9 

Sleep 206,  334 

"      and  conscience 336 

"      by  medicine ....  206,  220,  340 

Small  intestine,  The 163 

Smell,  Sense  of 232 

Sneezing 81 

Snoring 81 

Sound,  Theory  of 235 

Spectacles 242 

Speech 75 

Spinal  column,  The 12 

Spinal  cord 197 

"       nerves 197 

Spine,  The 11 

Spleen 157 

Sprain 22,  259 

Squinting 244 

Stammering 98 

Sternum 13 

Stimulants,  Narcotics  and 

131,  177,  208,  338 

Stimulants  and  the  Voice 298 

Stomach 160,  331 

"         Glandular  coat  of 319 

Sugars,  The 154 

Sunlight 206,  336,  337 

Sunstroke 263 

Superior  vena  cava 119 

Sutures 9 

Swallowing,  Act  of 160 

Sweat 62 

"      glands 61 

Swimming 66,  283,  293 

Sympathetic  system 201 

Synovial  membrane 8 

Systole 110 

TACTUS  ERUDITUS 230 


INDEX. 


401 


PAGE 

Tartar 60 

Taste,  Sense  of 230 

Tea 170,  322 

Tears,  The 238 

Teeth,  The 57 

Decay  of. 59 

"       Preservation  of 60 

Temperature  of  the  body 121 

Tendon  of  Achilles 36,  284 

Tendons 30 

Tennis-playing 284 

Theobromine 171 

Thigh 18 

Thoracic  duct 124 

Thorax 13 

Throat 73 

Thumb , 17,  272 

Tibia. :....     20 

Tight-lacing 96 

Tissues,  Definition  of 9 

Tobacco 214,  342 

Toes,  Flexibility  of  the 273 

Tongue,  The , 230 

Toothache,  The 262 

Touch,  Sense  of 229 

Trachea 78 

Transfusion 109 

Tricuspid  valve 113 

Tricycling 284 

Trifacial  nerve 199 

Trypsin 165 

Tympanum 234 

ULNA,  The 16 

Unconscious  action  of  the  brain  203 
Urea,  Uric  Acid 167 

VACCINATION 303 

Valves  of  the  heart 112 

"         "      "    veins ..  116 


PAGE 

Varicose  veins 116 

Veins,  The 116 

Velocity  of  the  blood 120 

Vena  cava 119 

Ventilation 85-95 

"  Bed  and  bedroom 

87,  88,  94,  95,  313 

Ventricles. .....: 110 

Vertebrae 12 

Villi  of  intestine 166 

Vitreous  humor 237 

Vocal  cords 73 

Vocalization 73,  298 

Voice,  The 75,  297 

"      Effect  of  stimulants  on  the  298 
Voluntary  muscles 29 

WALKING 37,  280 

Warts 68 

Washing 63 

Waste-pipes,  How  to  clear 310 

Water 155,  317 

"       Disease  germs  in 317 

How  to  purify 318 

"       and  foul  gases 318 

Windpipe 76 

Wisdom  teeth 58 

Wonders  of  the  brain 207 

"      "    digestion 175 

"         "      "    heart 123 

"         "      "    muscles 43 

"         "      "    respiration 95 

Woolen 66 

Worms 61 

Worry,  Effects  of 333 

Wounds 258 

Wrist-joint 17 


YAWNING. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 
BERKELEY 

Return  to  desk  from  which  borrowed. 
This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


JAN  1  3  1954 
JAN  1  5  RECD 


-100m-7,'52  (A2528sl6)476 


YB  36113 


M5607 


I  883 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


